Blood Donation

Envision an upbeat sound youngster. He does well in school and is anything but difficult to coexist with. Envision he is determined to have leukemia and requires every day platelet and blood transfusions just to remain alive. Presently, envision he has an uncommon blood classification that expects him to be moved to a bigger clinic for treatment. This is simply one more thing for him and his family to stress over. Comparative stories happen each day in the United States. It is assessed that at regular intervals a patient in the U. S needs a blood transfusion. Given blood spares 4. 5 million lives in America every year. However just 5% of the qualified U. S populace gives blood at whatever year. This is a miserable truth considering sound contributors are the main wellspring of blood. Since it can not be made or collected, there is no substitute. The blood flexibly in the US is reliably low, and the interest for it builds every year. Everybody healthy ought to give blood in any event once per year. There are numerous reasons why individuals ought to give. First you should realize that it is a protected and solid activity. In addition to the fact that you get a free smaller than usual physical, including circulatory strain check, pulse, temperature and iron levels, yet it is the quickest method to lose a pound! Likewise, debacles like fender benders, fires, and other injury cases happen each day and these patients need blood, and once in a while do they need just a single 16 ounces. A draining injury casualty can go through 100 units of blood in the blink of an eye. Furthermore, in view of our developing and maturing populace, just as the gigantic extension of medicinal services offices, our blood utilization is developing at multiple times the national rate, and its use outpaces giver assortments. With it evaluated that up to 85% of us will require blood in our life time it is far-fetched that the 5% giving currently can continue the rest. Numerous individuals who don't give similar reasons. Number one is they don't care for needles or are reluctant to do as such. About everybody feels that path from the start. Be that as it may, most benefactors will reveal to you that you feel just a slight introductory squeeze, and 7 after 10 minutes, you are done. The second is that they didn't have the foggiest idea or were never approached to give. In excess of 38,000 gifts are required each day in networks over the U. S. So it is essential to get the message out. Another regular reason is dread of maladies. It is acceptable to realize that it is beyond the realm of imagination to expect to get AIDS by giving blood to the American Red Cross. Another sterile needle is utilized for every giver and disposed of a short time later. So as should be obvious, it is protected, straightforward and above all it can spare somebody's life. On the off chance that you don't have the foggiest idea what is expected of you, it is extremely straightforward. Any individual who is in any event 17 years old, weighs in any event 110 pounds, and is healthy, can give. The gift procedure, from the time you show up until the chance to you leave, is just about 60 minutes. Short of what one 16 ounces is taken during a gift and it is supplanted normally by the body inside 24 hours. On the off chance that you set aside the effort to make one gift, you will ask why you at any point delayed. On the off chance that you are not persuaded, picture again the adolescent, battling for his life. Presently give him a face, a name; he is your cousin, your sibling, your closest companion. It could even be you. My inquiry to you is the reason not? Blood benefactors are genuine legends. Truth be told, your one blood gift will be separated into a few parts, empowering you, with only one gift, to set aside to three lives. On the off chance that you know somebody who gives blood normally, I ask you to go with them next time, or even all alone, and do likewise.

Social Business Summit Hospitality Industry-Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Talk About The Social Business Summit On Hospitality Industry? Answer: Introducation Voyaging everywhere throughout the world from Europe to Asia, Africa to Antarctica speaks to a holding among individuals in assorted variety. A cordiality industry essentially means to amass individuals having a place with various land foundations and perspectives (Richards and van Derark 2013). A business the travel industry part can prosper after the gathering of various guests from various land foundations. Hence, social business culmination can assemble individuals from different social mentalities and strict foundations. Consequently, we have masterminded a social business occasion on tenth September of 2017 in the city of Melbourne. Individuals from various land foundations and societies are permitted to go to the occasion. Numerous famous business characters having a place with the cordiality area will go to the social business occasion (Jamaludin and Kadir 2012). They are going to share their master thoughts and perspectives about the significance of going in improving the functional information and experience of individual. On tenth September of 2017 we have structured a program on social business managemet occasion. This year we are going to feature various contemplations and thoughts with respect to visitor goals and its criticalness. Prominent characters from the travel industry business segments in this particular occasion will present their up and coming brands and administration offices (Ziakas 2013). Watchers who will go to the occasion are fruitful enough in getting inside and out diagram about the visitor goals of Australia and its noteworthiness. Individuals from various geological market are not a lot of mindful of the place of interest. Hence, the business administrators will give point by point data about the goal just as suggested inns. This is to illuminate you that this specific occasion is identified with social business culmination (Connell, Page and Meyer 2015). In this way, the main role of the business administrators isn't to elevate their brands yet to give an inside and out diagram about the vacationer goal all over Australia. The watchers would become acquainted with the importance of various spots and their adaptability. A portion of the main considerations influence the client conduct of va cationers. Particularly any sort of policy centered issue occurring at the vacationer goal hampers psyches of clients. This specific social business occasion can assist you with enhancing your insight about the importance of different spots and its hazard factors. Voyaging is a basic piece of human life (Gibson, Kaplanidou and Kang 2012). This specific blueprint is the key idea of sorting out social business culmination. Individuals having a place with different topographical limits are adaptable enough in going to the occasion. In this particular occasion around 500 representatives originating from various business associations of cordiality divisions will join in and convey their discourse. Our coordinators are prepared to give you transport offices. Individuals who are from global foundation can speak with goal the executives organization (DMCs). The obligation of DMC is to facilitate with the guests in regards to visa, transport just as settlement. The clients are from various geological foundations. They need to confront hindrances in speaking with our groups related with activity process. This is to advise you that our officials are adaptable enough in speaking with the individuals of different social foundations and perspectives. The occasion will be composed at a major gathering lobby with the participation of various famous business researchers. Adequate measure of food and refreshment will be there at the hour of occasion. You don't have to convey food with you so as to go to the business occasion. Around 70 exhibitors are included for controlling the general procedure of occasion. Melbourne is where you can win in an advantageous manner. You don't have to battle in arriving at the city of Melbourne. So as to make the whole occasion fruitful your participation is exceptionally required. We have planned an arrangement for make our occasion effective. Accordingly, the whole group is exceptionally sitting tight for your reaction. 500 agents are there to convey their discourse with respect to the qualities and significance of voyaging. You are adaptable enough in connecting with our DMCs decisively. The specialist co-ops are having multi-lingual adaptability. Accordingly, you don't have to battle in speaking with our personals. You are free to go to this occasion and illuminate your master guidance. The main role of organizing a social business occasion is to pass on the message past going local limits. Australia is a lot of perceived for magnificent vacationer goal where enormous number of guests from various topographical limits will in general visit diverse spot. This specific social business occasion plans to give a top to bottom information and thoughts regarding the significance of going in different goals. Individuals having a place with assorted culture can get definite information and perspectives about the adaptability of cordiality industry of Australia. Reference List: Connell, J., Page, S.J. what's more, Meyer, D., 2015. Guest attractions and occasions: Responding to seasonality.Tourism Management,46, pp.283-298. Gibson, H.J., Kaplanidou, Business, S.J., 2012. Little scope occasion sport the travel industry: A contextual investigation in feasible tourism.Sport the board review,15(2), pp.160-170. Jamaludin, M. furthermore, Kadir, S.A., 2012. Availability in Buildings of Tourist Attraction: A contextual analyses comparison.Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,35, pp.97-104. Richards, G. furthermore, van Derark, L.A., 2013. Measurements of social utilization among visitors: Multiple correspondence investigation. The travel industry Management,37, pp.71-76. Ziakas, V., 2013. A multidimensional examination of a territorial occasion portfolio: Advancing hypothesis and praxis.Event Management,17(1), pp.27-48.

The Appeal and Value of Fantasy Stories and Films Essay Example

The Appeal and Value of Fantasy Stories and Films Essay Man, as a species, is innovative and has been all through the ages. They put their imagination to use really taking shape of imagination stories and movies, a considerable lot of which have made both positive and negative effects on society today. The inquiry is: are dream stories and movies only a getaway from the real world? Or on the other hand do they offer us something else? I am of the view that dream stories and movies are engaging and do have an incentive in today’s society. The intriguing storylines, their job in carrying expectation and inspiration to the world and their monetary worth all have an impact in the intrigue and estimation of imagination stories and movies. Dream stories and movies have figured out how to provoke the curiosity of youngsters worldwide because of the bright illustrations and regularly entertaining and special storylines. Despite the fact that the tales passed on are frequently anecdotal, they regularly convey certain ethics and qualities which are come off on the youngsters who read and watch these dream stories and movies. For example, in ‘Pokemon’, where the hero heads out far and wide to prepare and turn into the best at his specialty, shows the crowd the significance of flexibility and persistence as they see their preferred characters walking on considerably after they have confronted certain misfortunes. Shows like ‘Adventure Time’ and ‘He-Man’ likewise portray human characters as well as creatures also and there is frequently a cooperative connection between the human hero and his reliable cat sidekick. This is additionally found in the Disney film ‘Bee Movie’, wh ere human and creature cooperate to accomplish a shared objective. Youngsters, who are the biggest segment to peruse and watch these accounts and energized films, are at the age where they are generally receptive, and even subliminally, the pleasant soul of these movies are passed down to them and they convey these worth bestowed for the remainder of their lives. Indeed, even youngsters or grown-ups, in the wake of perusing or viewing these accounts and movies, are helped to remember the devil We will compose a custom article test on The Appeal and Value of Fantasy Stories and Films explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now We will compose a custom article test on The Appeal and Value of Fantasy Stories and Films explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer We will compose a custom article test on The Appeal and Value of Fantasy Stories and Films explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer

Application of ANT in Computing

Question: 1. Gather, investigate, present and remark upon business information. 2. Distinguish the connection between PC equipment and programming. 3. Depict the most widely recognized sorts of programming programs and clarify how they might be utilized to upgrade the board capacities. Answer: Presentation This article talks about the registering reports and investigations them by Actor Network Theory. In every report which is in a few or the other path identified with PCs news there are at any rate two actants (it could be more than two). Actant is any authorities; it could be a gathering or a person who can relate or part with different experts. Actants go into sorted out affiliations, which thusly portray them, assign them, and outfit them with subjectivity, action, substance, and desire, and. Likewise, actants are viewed as basically unclear, with no from the previous substance, and it is through the frameworks wherein they relate that actants construe their tendency (Callon 2012). Additionally, actants themselves make as frameworks. Actants are mixes of representatively contributed gear, characters, relations, and etchings, frameworks arranged to do settling inside other contrasting frameworks. This article plans to distinguish all unique actants that exists in alluded registering report, and how these actants rely upon one another. Likewise, this exposition will cover when an Actant follows up on another Actant, how does this change/alter the conduct of the Actant being followed up on. In this paper, we will contend on the system recognition, in a progressively exact way it could be said as, the ANT (entertainer arrange hypothesis) intends to increase the comprehension of system creation just as its development all through the data framework association (Callon 2012). Entertainer Network Theory The Actor-Network Theory likewise called the human study of translation is a socio-mechanical determinism at first made by Science Technology Study analysts as an undertaking to understand the strategies of advancement and data improvement in science and innovation. The speculation is an obviously convincing, yet significantly tested in its technique to appreciate individuals and their interchanges with non-human things. Subterranean insect is a hypothesis which thinks about the entire thing as on-screen characters or actants and characterizes the relationship among those actants or elements, initially created in the fields of humanities social science. Follow up on Humans This hypothesis expresses that there is no distinction among non-human element and human substance on the ontological ground. Insect distinguishes that non-human actants has a considerable impact in the system and are not totally constrained by human actants; anyway information structure specialists must not misuse it by accepting that non-human actants are of much significance in contrast with human actants as this prompts techno-determinism which is totally conflicting to ANT. Follow up on Material Environment Subterranean insect doesnt typically clarifies the presence of any system, in actuality is increasingly inspired by the foundation of entertainer systems, how the system has been framed and how might they self-destruct. Follow up on Cultures In various data frameworks perusing ANT has been used to inquire about on soundness of system and from now on selection of the innovation anyway as we see dynamic quality and complex of the frameworks, it could be seen that rather than adjustment, conclusion and arrangement, the catchphrases have now been changed to irregularities, ambiguities, multiplicities and inner conflict. Understanding the new time isn't about conclusion and adjustment. Rather, it is about more exceptionally delegated exhibitions. Investigation Using Actor Network Theory (ANT) Processing News Story 1 The processing report which has been alluded here spotlights on Digital child ventures point, a computerized actant, which expresses that Can Computer see like a human infant? In an increasingly elaborative manner it could be said as Is it workable for a PC to learn things by observing and interface with its encompassing appropriately? (Jeremy 2016). The essential actant in this story is human actant as it is the fundamental wellspring of data that must be seen by man-made consciousness which is optional actant here for example Advanced actant. Here Digital actant is totally reliant upon the human actant. Man-made brainpower is meaning to perceive the PCs vision, an advanced actant, of fluffy or fractional pictures of items, for example, ponies, birds, planes and so forth in contrast with the human actant. Expectedly, minds of human prove obviously superior to a PC at identifyingthese minimalimages even as they got minor and harder to perceive. In any case while looking at both actants advanced and human, it discovered hints that PC vision calculations could be improved, and man-made consciousness may figure out how to comprehend theworld the manner in which a developing human does since its introduction to the world. People mind utilizes some structure square element to distinguish fluffy or little pictures while the PC doesn't utilize any such element. The examination shows that human acknowledgment is both unmistakable and better when contrasted with man-made reasoning calculations. Online laborers go about as the product actants as the story required in excess of 14000 members and it was difficult to carry every one of them to the lab. Consequently human actants relied on a product actant for example Amazon Mechanical Turk to finish the examination (Jeremy 2016). On the size of culture At the social scale, the story distinguishes how the PC vision calculations and human mind disentangle the pictures. This new computerized actant for example disentangling of pictures indicated surprising fall in the redesign of pictures by the human mind. At the point when recently analyzed PC calculations did more terrible than the human mind yet when the pictures were made fluffy or little, there was very little of the acknowledgment hole. Registering News Story 2 This registering report which has been alluded is about an application DetectEarthquake, a product actant that utilizes GPS sensors, another product actant for the identification of tremors, a social actant, and assesses their area size progressively (Patel 2016). This product innovation conceivably will prompt a smaller overall seismic framework, a basic actant, which could caution people about the focal point of the tremor with the goal that they could get some an opportunity to reach to some sheltered spot. The dependant actant here saw as is US Geological Survey Group, A human actant which follows up on the information from the system, a product actant, which are ten to hundred seismic stations dispersed kilometers separated. GPS speeding up meters that could take steady estimations at a particular zone can in like manner recognize long stretch ground improvement at a geological deficiency that, with an unexpected appearance of created qualities, brings about a seismic tremor (Patel 2016). Social Scale At the size of culture, the story recognizes how the cell phone system will utilize the sensors in various nations around the world. In the nations like Nepal or Haiti where no seismic system is accessible however are available billions of advanced mobile phones, this marvel could bring about ease framework to caution the individuals about the quake and spare lives however much as could reasonably be expected. Information Scale At the size of information organization, this story includes a shrewd calculation that can recognize tremor shakes and movement of human. This is finished by perceiving the sufficiency and recurrence of the accelerometer signs. Upgrading Management The utilization of computerized child undertaking could support the equipment and programming actants in future. For ex-Someday higher PCs could engage Cortana Siri, basic accomplices in people tablets and mobile phones, to see or social co-tasks or human articulations. A few different advancements could likewise be enabled, for example, equipment actants ex flying automatons or self-driving vehicles improving them prepared to see their general environmental factors. For example, driverless auto pros have been trying to upgrade the PC vision figurings that enable robot automobiles to see quickly walkers, cars, and various articles all over town. Issues raised by Contemporary Computing It needs countless systems to decide the shakes which probably won't be available at each area. So it won't work at each area. Additionally, still there are numerous bugs that are available with the application and it has less no.of clients. Large Data age is the essential issue with this application. As the application needs to keep up the total information of the earth it requires huge volume space and the recovery speed will be moderate along these lines. Thus to deal with additional bytes of data equal preparing will be required alongside new examination calculation. Human conduct is influenced most by these advanced contraptions as it builds the reliance on an exceptionally significant level. Contemporary Computing is counterproductive yet increasingly like eating in abundance which blocks progress and headway. It causes people groups neural channels to rot while completing a few things without a moment's delay. Anyway there are numerous acceptable sides to it as correspondence is fundamental for judgment, association, and arranging. It is required for handling data. Trade of criticism is one of the most wanted motivations to have contemporary figuring in our every day life. Likewise without it, it is difficult to oversee worldwide activities. End As examined in the presentation part this article had inquired about upon most recent registering reports and had investigated them utilizing on-screen character arrange hypothesis. It could be inferred that any actant doesnt have its own worth except if it is being followed up on by some other actant or it follows up on some other actant. All the actants found in these two stories were some way or another associated with each other. No actant has a worth except if it follows up on other actant or followed up on by another. GPS sensors in report 2 would have no worth on the off chance that they dont have an actant to assess magnitu

Hobbes and Locke on the Evolution of the Civil Society Term Paper

Hobbes and Locke on the Evolution of the Civil Society - Term Paper Example Their perspectives are significant for global political idea, since they affected present universal political economy speculations and helped cleared the discussion on political philosophy, especially molding the talk on the idea of â€Å"civil society† and the ascent of country states opposite â€Å"civil society.† Locke and Hobbes have veering sees on the connection between the administration and common society, just as the thoughts of subjection, power, heading of worldwide legislative issues, and harmony, yet they share to some degree comparative convictions in the job of training and the condition of nature of mankind. Locke and Hobbes have wandering perspectives on the connection between the administration and common society. Hobbes accepts that Europe has changed as a common society through the advancement of the implicit understanding. The Commonwealth just exists in light of the Covenant between the individuals and the legislature or the state. Hobbes says in t he Leviathan: â€Å"Essence of the Common-riches; which (to characterize it) is ‘One Person, of whose Acts an incredible Multitude, by shared Covenants one with another, have made themselves each one the Author, to the end he may utilize the quality and methods for them all, as he will might suspect catalyst, for their Peace and Common Defense.’† This announcement shows that the principle objective of the administration is to guarantee harmony and national resistance. The pledge or implicit agreement, in any case, for Hobbes is outright, where the state fuses the wills of the people; the state is the body and people are simply parts of it: â€Å"The best way to raise such a Common Power† is â€Å"to give all their capacity and quality upon one Man, or upon one Assembly of men, that may diminish every one of their Wills, by majority of voices, unto one Will† (Hobbes). This announcement underscores that the implicit agreement ties all people. From one perspective, it upholds majority of wills. Then again, it implies the priority of the state over common society. Locke affirms indistinguishable perspectives from Hobbes and contends that Europe additionally changed in light of the requirement for the implicit understanding. In contrast to Hobbes, Locke accepts that individuals remove a portion of implicit agreements only to help settle debates between people or gatherings. He says: â€Å"And this is done, any place any number of men, in the condition of nature, go into society to make one individuals, one body politic, under one preeminent government†¦to make laws for him, as the open great of the general public will require†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Locke, Two Treatises on Government). From here, unmistakably Locke accepts that it is the individuals or common society that legitimizes the state; while for Hobbes, the administration legitimizes the presence of a quiet thoughtful society. My analysis of Hobbes is that he ignores that the individuals make the administration. The implicit agreement ties the individuals, yet the individuals can unbind a few laws excessively so as to make the agreement fit their changing needs and issues. I concur more with Locke, who helps governments to remember their subjugation to the common society. It doesn't mean, in any case, that the common society will likewise mishandle its privileges and completely void the implicit agreement without due legitimizations. Locke and Hobbes separate on the thought of sway. Locke contends that common society goes before the state. For him, it is society that gives the express its fundamental wellspring of authenticity. He fights that when the rulers neglect to empower interests, freedom,

Must-Read February New Releases

Must-Read February New Releases Live your best bookish life with our New Release Index. It’s a fantastically functional way to keep track of your most anticipated new releases. It’s available exclusively to Book Riot Insiders. Subscribe to Book Riot Insiders! Jamie Canaves A Dangerous Crossing (Rachel Getty Esa Khattak #4) by Ausma Zehanat Khan (February 13, Minotaur Books): Khan is super talented at creating smart and thoughtful detective procedurals that also incorporate important current politics and social issues. This time around, Canadian detectives Getty and Esa find themselves looking into the disappearance of a friend’s sister who vanished while in Greece helping Syrian refugees. With two dead bodies discovered, there are many questions: Is she a murderer on the run? Hiding from danger? Or also dead? Amanda Kay Oaks Surprise Me by Sophie Kinsella (February 13, The Dial Press): This book definitely surprised me in that it wasn’t at all what I expected to read from Kinsella, probably best known for Confessions of a Shopaholic. Unlike many romance novels, this one picks up with a couple who is already married with kids. This fresh take on what a love story can be was a joy to read, and I love that its release date falls so close to Valentine’s Day (if you’re into that sort of thing). Pierce Alquist Heart Berries: A Memoir by Terese Marie Mailhot (February 6, Counterpoint Press): This is one of the most highly anticipated books of the year, let alone February! Heart Berries is a powerful memoir of Terese Marie Mailhot’s coming of age on the Seabird Island Indian Reservation in the Pacific Northwest. The memoir is one of struggle, as she details her dysfunctional upbringing and challenges indigenous women face, but ultimately one of strength and will. Roxane Gay described it as an “an astounding memoir in essays. Here is a wound. Here is need, naked and unapologetic. Here is a mountain woman, towering in words great and small…What Mailhot has accomplished in this exquisite book is brilliance both raw and refined. I don’t think you can get higher praise than that! I can’t wait! Beth O’Brien I’ll be Gone in the Dark: One Woman’s Obsessive Search for the Golden State Killer by Michelle McNamara (February 27, Harper): I’m a hardcore murderino and I’ve always found myself drawn in by the mysterious, morbid, and macabre elements found in true crime. I remember spending afternoons as a teenager on my painfully slow PC reading about famous serial killers, their victims, and how they were (or weren’t) apprehended. Michelle McNamara was an amazing writer and journalist and I’m very much looking forward to her masterpiece, which she sadly died while writing and investigating. I don’t personally know very much about the Golden State Killer and I can’t wait to read all the grisly details in McNamara’s words. Kate Krug Daughter of the Siren Queen by Tricia Levenseller (February 27, Feiwel Friends/Macmillan): Swashbuckling pirate Alosa is back and forced to confront the Pirate King aka her father after a secret is revealed about her family. Alosa is also trying to get a hand on her siren powers and navigating the turbulent waters around her relationship with first mate Riden. Daughter of the Pirate King was such a fun surprise last year and I’m excited to see what adventures Alosa and her crew are up to in the sequel. Jessica Woodbury Sunburn by Laura Lippman (February 20, William Morrow): Lippman is one of our most prolific crime novelists, with a dozen novels in her Tess Monaghan series and several successful stand-alones. But this is her best book yet; instead of the procedural mystery or the character-driven thriller, she’s moved to one of my favorite subgenres: noir. Lippman thanks one of my favoritesâ€"James M. Cain, author of The Postman Always Rings Twice and Double Indemnity among other classicsâ€"in the Acknowledgments and she’s created a novel that has the best of the old school noir style with a modern feminist narrative where no one is quite what they seem. A slow burn of rising suspense with more than a few twists and turns, it’s one of my early favorites of the year. Susie Dumond White Houses by Amy Bloom (February 13, Random House): Some might say that Eleanor Roosevelt’s intensely emotional and physical relationship with journalist Lorena Hickok is the worst kept lesbian secret in history. Now their love story is being told in the form of a historical novel by acclaimed author Amy Bloom. White Houses follows Hickok’s path to becoming the most prominent woman reporter in the country and the intimate “first friend” of Eleanor Roosevelt. I can’t wait to get my hands on this one! Karina Glaser The Girl Who Drew Butterflies by Joyce Sidman (February 20, HMH Books for Young Readers): This is a nonfiction book for middle grade readers about Maria Sibylla Merian, one of the first botanists to observe live insects directly. She grew up in the 1600s, when most believed that insects spontaneously arose from mud, dung, or dead things. She studied flowers and drew them, being one of the first artists to include insects in her artwork. Merian was also one of the first to document the metamorphosis of the butterfly as well as one of the first female entomologists in her field. The book is informative and accessible to middle grade readers, and it is filled with beautiful illustrations done by the Merian herself. This would be a fantastic addition to any school or home library! Claire Handscombe Paper is White by Hilary Zaid (February 19, Bywater Books): Hilary and I studied with Alexander Chee at the Tin House Writers’ Workshop a couple of summers ago, and I’m so excited that we all finally get to read her book. Paper is White is a love story set in 90s dot-com era San Francisco, and here’s what Chee had to say about it: “…a very different sort of adventure novel, where remembering someone you love becomes one of the most radical things you can do. Zaid is fierce, a rebel with a cause, and her breathtaking leaps of imagination make new worlds possible.” Tiffany Hall A Girl Like That by Tanaz Bhathena (February 27, Farrar, Straus and Giroux Books for Young Readers): Typically, I’m not one for intense contemporary reads, but A Girl Like That has seemed to completely ensnare meâ€"this is a novel I can’t wait to get my hands on. Following a sixteen-year-old girl, Zarin Wadia, with quite a reputation, this debut shines a light on many important topics like race, adolescent struggle, and identity. Not only that, but the stakes are all the higher when Zarin and another teen are found dead in a crashed car. To paint a full portrait of who Zarin was beyond a girl “like that,” Bhathena employs the use of a few different perspectives, which makes it all the more appealing. Part mystery, part contemporary, this novel will certainly be in my hands as soon as it hits the shelves. Tirzah Price Tess of the Road by Rachel Hartman (February 27, Random House Books for Young Readers): Rachel Hartman’s dragons in Seraphina and Shadow Scale fascinated me, but her lively characters and spectacular world-building were what made her a must-read author for me. I’m so excited to meet Tess and return to Goredd for another grand adventureâ€"so much so that I’ve caught myself daydreaming about this book multiple times in the last few months. Also, that cover!! Nicole Brinkley Heart of Iron by Ashley Poston (February 27, Balzer + Bray): Found as a child drifting through space, Ana will do anything to save D09, one of the last illegal Metals, from glitchingâ€"even if it means going on a trip across the galaxy with an entitled Ironblood boy to the coordinates to a ship that might not actually exist. The sci-fi action adventure novel you didnt know you needed, Ashley Postons Heart of Iron reads like a movie. Its fast paced, totally fun, and should be on the reading list of anybody who lives sci-fi. Fans of Amie Kaufman, Meagan Spooner, and Fireflyâ€"pick this one up! Steph Auteri Speak: The Graphic Novel by Laurie Halse Anderson and Emily Carroll (February 6, Farrar, Straus and Giroux): When I finally read Anderson’s Speak last year, it at once shattered and struck me as one of the most important books out there, especially for young girls struggling with depression and with the aftermath of sexual assault. Then I learned that Speak was getting the graphic novel treatment and my heart exploded with excitement. I can’t wait to see Carroll’s approach to this essential YA novel. Alison Doherty American Panda by Gloria Chao (February 6, Simon Pulse): I looked this book up after hearing a recommendation from Yin Chang on the podcast 88 Cups of Tea and felt hooked once I saw that BookList called the debut “wickedly funny.” I’m so excited to read a YA story where a seventeen year old character goes to college early. And I’m intrigued by the conflict of a Taiwanese American girl trying to balance her own self knowledge with the expectations her parents have set for her. Very here for an adorable, own voices coming of age story! Priya Sridhar All Out by Saundra Mitchell, Kody Keplinger, Kate Scelsa, Robin Talley, Shaun David Hutchinson, Tess Sharpe, Alex Sanchez, Nilah Magruder, Sara Farizan, Mackenzi Lee, Anna-Marie McLemore, Malinda Lo, Dahlia Adler, Tehlor Kay Mejia, Scott Tracey, Tessa Gratton, Natalie C. Parker, Elliot Wake (February 27, Harlequin Teen): I am totally down for an anthology that explores the LGBTQ spectrum, with established and new authors contributing their tales. Stories that span time and space depict love, identity and awakenings. I for one cannot wait to read each story. Liberty Hardy The Lost Girls of Camp Forevermore by Kim Fu (February 13, Houghton, Mifflin, Harcourt): THIS BOOK. Camp Forevermore is a sleep-away camp, a place of friendship and adventure, but for five young girls, their week will quickly go horribly wrong. In between chapters about what happens to the girls that week at camp are stories of the lives of each of the girls, from when they’re young up to present day, and how their traumatic experience shaped them. This is one of those books that immediately breaks your heart and then makes you feel like the rest of the words in the book are the glue you desperately need to keep it from coming completely apart. It’s beautiful and devastating. Katie McLain Force of Nature by Jane Harper (February 6, Flatiron Books): The sequel to last year’s super amazing, dark, Tana Frenchâ€"esque mystery, The Dry follows Police Agent Aaron Falk as he searches for a missing hiker who may or may not have come to harm at the hands of her coworkers. Everyone who’s read an early copy of this book says it’s just as good as The Dry, if not better, and I cannot WAIT to get my hands on it! Rachel Brittain Flight Season by Marie Marquardt (February 20, Wednesday Books): This book is sweet and moving and lovely and such a good example of how YA can mix a heartfelt story with really serious issues. The book follows Vivi, TJ, and Ángel, three teenagers who come from very different worlds but are brought together at the hospital were Vivi and TJ are interning and where Ángel is slowly dying of heart failure. Flight Season is about the enduring power of friendship, but it also deals with grief, illness, immigration, and deportation. It’ll break your heart and then slowly put it back together again. Margaret Kingsbury The Rending and the Nest by Kaethe Schwehn (February 20, Bloomsbury USA): Can there be too many post-apocalyptic novels? For me, the answer is no, though I am picky about what I like. The Rending and the Nest has an interesting premise: after some sort of apocalypse, women start giving birth to inanimate objects. Sounds delightfully weird! It’s being compared to both California (which I was iffy on) and Station Eleven (which I loved), so I’ll just have to see. I must admit, part of what draws me to this one is that I have my own little one right now, so I’m interested in anything about babies! Kate Scott What Are We Doing Here? By Marilynne Robinson (February 20, Farrar, Straus, Giroux): Ever since the 2016 election, the relationship between politics and faith (and all the ways it can go wrong) has been on my mind. In this essay collection, Robinson examines America’s current political, cultural, and religious condition. As I work my way through Robinson’s bibliography, I find myself frequently disagreeing with her conclusions; however, I am continuously drawn back to her work in spite of my misgivings. Perhaps this is because she is such an eloquent writer or perhaps it is because she paints an aspirational vision of Christianity that I wish to be true. Regardless, I will be first in line to read this book. Danielle Bourgon Song of a Captive Bird by Jasmin Darznik (February 13, Ballantine Books): A novel that is set to tell the story of an infamous female poet from Iran, whom I have never heard of. The author, Jasmin Darznik, has done a heap of research and prepared a novel to tell the story of Forugh Farrokhzad. It even includes new translations of selected poems! I just started falling down the poetry rabbit hole in the last few years and I love a good memoir so this seems like it’s going to be right in my current wheelhouse. Adiba Jaigirdar The Belles by Dhonielle Clayton (February 6, Disney-Hyperion): This is probably one of the most talked about book of 2018. Set in a fantasy world where people are born gray and only the Belles can make them beautiful, The Belles is a story about power, secrets, and the cost of beauty. It’s also been highly praised by Roxane Gayâ€"which makes me want to read it even more! Christina Vortia An American Marriage: A Novel by Tayari Jones (February 6, Algonquin Books): I’m really excited to read Tayari Jones’s new novel. She is a master at developing nuanced characters and crafting narratives with intricate plots. This novel, about successful newlyweds who rapidly find themselves at an intersection of crime and punishment, guilt and ignorance, loyalty and infidelity is sure to be illuminating. I cant wait to pull back the layers with this one. Aimee Miles The Serpent’s Secret by Sayantani DasGupta (February 27, Scholastic): Kiranmala is just a regular twelve year old in New Jersey until her parents disappear and demons from their stories appear. She has to unravel the family secrets, stay alive, and save her parents (and the world). I am here for any twelve year old girls who take on the role of demonslayer, and I am particularly interested that Kiranmala is interacting with a different culture’s mythology than has been popularly seen. As an fyi, this book was hit by one-star trolls, as children’s books by POC are wont to receive; take any star-ratings with a grain of salt. Rabeea Saleem The Clarity by Keith Thomas (February 20, Atria): If you’re a Black Mirror fan like me then you’ll love this chilling speculative thriller. A psychologist who is researching how we form memories must protect the life of a young girl who remembers past lives. Tautly plotted and well researched, this book is a riveting take on the possibility of afterlife and reincarnation. Erin McCoy The Bastard’s Bargain by Katee Robert (February 6, Grand Central Publishing): In this conclusion to Robert’s The O’Malley series we finally get to see Dmitri and Keira together. I wasn’t a big Dmitri fan until the fifth book of this series, but after seeing him go all-out to protect Keira in Undercover Attraction I’m officially a member of the Romanov fan club. I’ll be sad to see this series end since it not only introduced me to Robert’s exceptionally provocative writing, this series has also given me some of my favorite mobster hero and heroines to date. Rebecca Hussey Feel Free by Zadie Smith (February 6, Penguin Press): Zadie Smith’s essays are as good as her fiction. Her first collection, Changing My Mind, was wide-ranging, beautifully-written, elegant, and thought-provoking. Feel Free includes new work as well previously published pieces from The New Yorker and elsewhere. Zadie Smith can make any subject compelling; she’s a writer to watch, no matter what she writes about. Dana Staves Summer Hours at the Robbers Library by Sue Halpern (February 27, Harper Collins): Small town libraries, secrets, criminal activity, and a quirky cast of charactersâ€"it’s all in Sue Halpern’s novel. Each of the main characters has their own reasons for keeping other people shut outâ€"secrets about the past, uncertainty about the futureâ€"but when they’re thrown together in a sleepy small town library, the inevitable happens: they get to know each other, get to need each other, and lo and behold, even like each other too. This was a joy to read. Brandi Bailey The House of Impossible Beauties by Joseph Cassara (February 6, Ecco): The gritty glamour of New York in the 80s and the club scene is fascinating to me. I’m not sure why this book is calling my name so hard, but I know I need to read it. Set in the LGBTQ+ community at the dawn of the AIDS crisis is going to make this read an emotional rollercoaster, I’m sure. I’m especially excited because this novel is an #ownvoices choice. Cassara has talked about the amount of research he undertook to make sure his 1980 Harlem setting is as authentic as possible. Inspired by real people, places, and events, Impossible Beauties promises an immersive, vibrant, painful experience. Jaime Herndon Asymmetry by Lisa Halliday (February 6, Simon Schuster): I love when writers use form in a different way, and Halliday has two novellas that discuss relationships and various power imbalances. The first concerns a young editor and an older writer; the second is about an Iraqi-American economist detained in Heathrow. Though initially seeming separate and discrete, the two work together and connect. I just started it, but I’m loving it. Tasha Brandstatter Hello, Stranger by Lisa Kleypas (February 27, Avon): Kleypas’s latest series has been a little hit-or-miss for me, but I’m looking forward to this book starring a 19th-century female physician. Hopefully the mystery is as well-developed as the romance. Kim Ukura The Line Becomes a River by Francisco Cantú (February 6, Riverhead): Between 2008 and 2012, Francisco Cantú was an agent with the U.S. Border Patrol, working along the Mexican border to prevent both drugs and people from entering the country. Cantú eventually asks to return to a desk job, finding the stress and guilt of the job to be too much, but he finds himself pulled back into the debate over immigration when an undocumented friend is arrested at the border. I love finding personal stories that help explain big picture issues, so I think this one will be right up my alley. Natalya Muncuff A Princess in Theory: Reluctant Royals by Alyssa Cole (February 27, Avon Books): Most of us have gotten (and rolled our eyes) at the emails stating weve won a large lump sum of money or some other seemingly enticing reward. We know its fake so we immediately delete it. However, I know Im not the only one who has entertained the idea that one of them could be true. A grad school student receiving emails saying shes betrothed to an African prince, and its true? Sounds like a winning plot to me! Im very intrigued to see how Cole will put her spin on this storyline. Dana Lee Shadowsong by S. Jae-Jones (February 6, Wednesday Books): So, full disclosure, I loved Wintersong. LOVED it, I mean I made a fanmix people! I showed up for the Goblin King and stayed for the beautiful, intricate writing and the infusion of classical music into the plot. I cannot wait to be back in this ethereal world. Shadowsong is the conclusion of this duology by S. Jae-Jones and I have a mighty need to see what Liesl is up against in the world above now that she’s survived the Underground. My body is ready for more goblins and minor keys. Jessica Avery The Lucky Ones by Tiffany Reisz (February 13, MIRA Books): Tiffany Reisz has been at the top of my auto-buy list for something like six years now. I would run out of words before I could successfully explain how beautiful and nuanced her novels are. The Lucky Ones is her latest addition, and she’s returning to some of the Gothic elements that made her book from a few years ago, The Bourbon Thief, so incredible. Impending tragedy brings lead character Allison back to the strange, idyllic home that she grew up in as an orphan. The coastal Oregon beach house ominously named Dragon. Ghosts of the past and horrific secrets abound, and I’m ready to be enthralled. Michelle Hart Self-Portrait with Boy by Rachel Lyon (February 6, Scribner): I’m wary of novels about artists set in Brooklyn, but I was blown away by Rachel Lyon’s debut about an aspiring photographer who, while taking the 1990s equivalent of a selfie, captures on film the accidental suicide of her neighbor, a young boy. Eerie and exquisitely composed, the image could launch her career, but she wrestles with the emotional and moral costs of using another family’s tragedy for her own gain. Things get even more confusing for her when she begins a very intimate relationship with the boy’s mother. Self-Portrait with Boy is a searing novel about the fraught relationship between intimacy and ambition. Laura Sackton Comics For Choice edited by Hazel Newlevant and Whit Taylor (February 6, Alternative Comics): I cannot wait to get my hands on this anthology of comics about abortion. It features over sixty artists, writers, and cartoonists, and the comics include personal stories as well as nonfiction about the history of abortion, abortion activism, and reproductive justice. I’m particularly excited because it includes the voices of trans and gender-nonconforming people, who are far too often left out of the conversation when it comes to abortion and reproductive rights. At a time when so many of those rights are under threat, I know this is going to be a tough, moving, and inspiring read. Patricia Elzie-Tuttle The Prince and the Dressmaker by Jen Wang (February 13, First Second): I feel like I first heard about this book in 2015 and I am so excited that it’s finally coming out! An all-ages graphic novel that is warm and romantic and deconstructs gender norms? Yes, please! I am always searching feel-good books by diverse authors writing diverse characters, especially ones that I can pass on to the younger people in my life, and this certainly fits the bill. I am definitely looking forward to this heartwarming tale of a prince who lives a double life as Lady Crystallia, a fashion icon, and the dressmaker that helps it all happen.

6 Editing and Proofreading Tips For Students

6 Editing and Proofreading Tips Every Student Should Know Check capitalisations. This is key, especially with names in references. Make sure all names and places are capitalised. Also check that you have capital letters after each full stop. Spelling checks Firstly, use your spell checker. Make sure it is set up to UK English and not US.Secondly, reading the paper backwards is a clever way to check the spelling of a paper as it makes you read each word individually rather than as a sentence, where you can miss spelling mistakes. Grammar, Grammar, Grammar! As well as spelling it is highly important to check your grammar throughout the paper. Make sure you are using punctuation correctly. You can check online to see if your paper is correct. There is also a software called Grammerly that you can download onto your computer. This shows you your grammar mistakes as you are writing. However, sometimes it is best to learn to find your own mistakes as you will not have this software in an exam! Read out loud Reading an essay out loud can highlight parts of the work that do not work or do not flow well. It allows you to hear to from a different perspective and will easily pinpoint the parts that need to be re-worded. Print it out Do it the old fashioned way and grab a pen to make proofreading corrections. Get a different colour pen to the text and go through the paper slowly. Something as simple as reading the essay on paper instead of a screen could help you find some mistakes that you may have otherwise overlooked. Get someone else to read through it! This is a great option if you have it. Ask a friend or family member to read through the paper and make corrections themselves. It is a lot easier to spot mistakes with fresh eyes on the work. Alternatively, you can ask 15 Writers to help you with essay proofreading and/or editing of your paper. We have a team of highly qualified writers who are experienced in proofreading their own work and other student’s papers. Contact us at help@15writers.com and we will be able to help you.

Teenage Sexting Essay - 631 Words

The act of sexting has many negative consequences. The number of teenagers whom participate in sexting is rapidly increasing. Sexting has become a widespread phenomenon that has destroyed lives and has caused emotional distress to many teenagers and young adults. Sexting gives teenagers the feeling of acceptance and the chance to be popular by gaining attention but what they fail to realize is the attention they are receiving is negative and it affects their reputation. Once a sext message has been sent, the receiver is given the opportunity to show the message to his or her peers and which will bring negative attention to the sender. Teenager’s sext for many reasons that may alter their lives significantly in the future. The purpose of†¦show more content†¦Teen suicide numbers have increased because of harassment and embarrassment caused by sexting. There have been instances when teens have sent private pictures intended for only the receiver to view and the pictur es have been maliciously publicize failing to realize the damage and humiliation it may cause the sender. According to Mass Media Law, privacy is the expectation that confidential personal information disclosed in a private place will not be disclosed to third parties when that disclosure would cause either embarrassment or emotional distress to a person of reasonable sensitivities. Many teens fail to realize this, and share the messages, pictures, videos and other forms of sexting they receive, not thinking of the impact it makes on the sender. Jessica Logan was a high school graduate who had just turned 18. During the time Jessica was in a relationship with her ex boyfriend, she sent him nude pictures of herself. Once the couple split, the boyfriend spread the pictures of Jessica which were meant for him throughout the school. Students began to harass Jessica by calling her names and emotionally abusing her. The abuse became so severe; it led Jessica to committing suicide. Many teens across America are victims of this kind of abuse and end in committing suicide. The only way to prevent these types of tragedies from recurring is byShow MoreRelatedSexting As A Teenage Moral Panic1480 Words   |  6 PagesSnapchat Sexting as a Teenage Moral Panic Social media has become an outlet for teenagers to communicate constantly, monitor each other’s lives, and control what they want others to see. As social media is becoming more and more popular, more teenage moral panics are occurring. A moral panic is defined as the â€Å"fear of a new technology’s or cultural form’s negative impact outside of parental control.† (Jackson) Throughout these past few years, there have been an endless amount of teenage moral panicsRead MoreSexting Among Teenage Girls and Boys1435 Words   |  6 PagesOver the last few years, there has been a lot of discussion and debate over the topic of sexting. It has become a widespread phenomenon, the number of teenage girls and boys, men and women who participate are rapidly increasing, and with this too comes the rise of moral panic within societies. Individuals within the communities are becoming more and more fearful, afraid and shocked at this new form of youth culture hysteria. A lthough young people ‘expressing’ their sexuality has become much moreRead MoreEffects Of Social Media On Teen Pregnancy Essay1400 Words   |  6 Pages When using sites such as Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and many others, there are both positive and negative effects on the youth. While there are many challenges society and families face, one that continues to be of concern is Teen pregnancy. Teenage is a crucial phase of life where teens are growing physically and emotionally. They are vulnerable to the influences of the society and fall prey to sexual activities that could lead them to parenthood at a very young age. Teen pregnancy is not onlyRead MoreSexting1555 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction The sexting trend is gaining popularity with both teens and adults. Haag and Cummings (2010), define sexting as â€Å"the sending of sexually explicit messages and/ or photos, primarily between mobile phones† (p.1). However, sexually explicit messages and photos can be sent through social media websites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram and over various electronic devices, such as tablets. Although sexting between consenting adults is considered an acceptable activity, both adultsRead MoreSexting: Mobile Phone and Highly Charged Issues Essay1111 Words   |  5 PagesTeen â€Å"Sexting† Sexting – teens sending sexually explicit photos of themselves via cell phones, email, or instand message – has become the latest in a line of highly charged issues involving kids and the internet. Sexting has become a widespread occurance that has destroyed lives and has caused emotional distress to many teenagers and young adults. Sexting gives teenagers the feeling of acceptance and the chance to be popular by gaining attention but what they fail to realize is the attention theyRead MorePros And Cons Of Facebook987 Words   |  4 PagesFacebook and its Enemies Technology should take the blame for sexting, bullying, identity theft, and many other social issues. However, others may say technology can help conduct schedules, simplify work and home businesses, coordinate activities, communicate with families and much more. Facebook, the   most famous social networking site, comes with its own pros and cons. Facebook though is an enemy to society and single handedly controls the lives of many people. Now, despise what I believe let’sRead MoreTechnology Is The Answer On Technology966 Words   |  4 Pagesbut it’s actually stunning it. My generation is using technology for all the wrong reasons; sexting, texting while driving and walking, social media and video games etc. In recent years the new phenomenon among teens has been sexting. To try and take control of this the court systems have started to charge teens for sexting. Just in September a North Carolina Teenage couple faced felony charges for sexting. Studies show that 39% of all teens have said that they have sent sexually suggestive messagesRead MoreSexting: Virtual Abuse of the Human Body Essay1293 Words   |  6 PagesSexting: Virtual Abuse of the Human Body While the increased access to technology over the recent years provides almost every consumer with new communication tools at his or her fingertips, it also leads to negative effects. â€Å"Sexting† has become extremely popular, especially among teenage consumers. This new action is said to be any sexually explicit messages or pictures between cell phones. Sexting has become so emotionally and physically dangerous that there have been cases where suicide or otherRead MoreWhy Teenagers Send These Sexual Messages And Photos895 Words   |  4 Pagescan also have possible negative effects. Sexting is the well-known meaning of sharing explicit photographs, text messages, and sexual content through digital devices, cellular devices or over the internet. According to the National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, â€Å"22% of teen girls and 20% of teen boys have sent nude or seminude photos of themselves over the internet or their phones.† With this being sai d, many teenagers are engaged in sexting without being aware or considering theRead MoreThe Issue Of Juvenile Crime Essay810 Words   |  4 PagesAfter evaluating two sources concerning the topic of juvenile crime, I have come to my own conclusions related to this topic. I believe that changing the juvenile jurisdiction age from age seventeen to eighteen is a great idea. I also believe that sexting is a crime for some. Juvenile crime is a huge issue in the United States, but how we punish those young adults is also very important. On September 18th, 2013 Deval Patrick, the Governor of Massachusetts, signed legislation that raises the age

Doctor Assisted Suicide By Using Peer Reviewed Articles

Doctor assisted suicide has been a controversial topic for decades. It is placing value on life and death. This paper examines doctor assisted suicide by using peer reviewed articles that address many of the social and political issues surrounding doctor assisted suicide, including key factors such as the roles that technology and family play in a patient s decision to use assisted suicide. Brody (1995) gives an in depth view of how doctor assisted suicide works. Emanuel (1997) takes a closer look into the parameters that must be present to qualify for doctor assisted suicide. ASSISTED SUICIDE, MERCY OR MURDER? As pet owners of a thirteen year old dog, my husband and I face a difficult decision moving forward. It is our responsibility†¦show more content†¦The patient s death is caused by a mechanism which the patient could not attain on his or her own (Brody, 1995). How is doctor assisted suicide preformed? Once a patient has decided that doctor assisted suicide is the best option for them their doctor will prescribe life ending medication. Most patients have received a prescription for an oral dosage of a barbiturate (pentobarbital or secobarbital), and beginning in 2015, a phenobarbital/chloral hydrate/morphine sulfate/ethanol mix has also been used (Parrot, n.d.). The laws in each state vary, but in some of the states the patient can take the pills wherever they choose, but the law advises the doctor to ask the patient to not take the medication in a public place. Most of the time the medication is taken at the patient s home. According to Dr. Carol Parrot, the medication should be taken in the state prescribed, otherwise the death may be ruled as a suicide. Who does the final action to cause the death? Many people believe that it is the doctor that initiates the final action, but that is not true. Brody’s (1995) states that the doctor must be with the patient at the time of death to setup and control the mechanism of death. The absolute final action to cause death is done by the patient. Even though the final action which throws the switch is the patient s and not theShow MoreRelatedThe Controversy of Physician-Assisted Suicide2574 Words   |  10 Pagesï » ¿Physician-Assisted Suicide Introduction The issue of physician-assisted suicide has been highly controversial for many years in the United States, and the controversy continues today with no apparent end in sight. The idea that a doctor would assist a voluntary patient with that patients death is repugnant to many people on ethical, moral and philosophical grounds. Still, physician-assisted suicide is legal in Oregon, Montana and Washington State, and in four other states (North Carolina, UtahRead MoreHsm 542 Week 12 Discussion Essay45410 Words   |  182 Pagesparents of some small children have died because they did not receive the medical care that could have saved the lives of these children. There is one case though that even though the doctors knew that this family believed in only prayer healing treated a young girl and saved her life. The parents are trying to sue the doctor and the hospital stating that they went against the wishes of the parents and used evil medicine on their little girl. There have been a numb er of these cases in Oregon that I doRead MoreLgbt19540 Words   |  79 Pagestrans women. Transvestite or cross-dressing individuals are thought to comprise the largest transgender sub-group. Cross-dressers sometimes wear clothes considered appropriate to a different gender. They vary in how completely they dress (from one article of clothing to fully cross-dressing) as well as in their motives for doing so. A small number can go on to identify as transsexual. Gender Reassignment Gender Reassignment also called transitioning, is the process of changing the way someones genderRead MoreThe Effect of the Use of Social Networking Sites in the Workplace on Job Performance18692 Words   |  75 Pagespartial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION May 2012 Concentration: Management Information Systems THE EFFECT OF THE USE OF SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES IN THE WORKPLACE ON JOB PERFORMANCE A Dissertation by MURAD MOQBEL Submitted to Texas AM International University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Read More_x000C_Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis355457 Words   |  1422 PagesTeri. J. D. ââ€"   About the Authors puter Teacher of the Year award in 1988 and received the Siemens Award for Advanced Placement in mathematics in 1999. Chris is a frequent contributor to the AP Statistics Electronic Discussion Group and has reviewed materials for The Mathematics Teacher, the AP Central web site, The American Statistician, and the Journal of the American Statistical Association. He currently writes a column for Stats magazine. Chris graduated from Iowa State University with aRead MoreHuman Resources Management150900 Words   |  604 Pagesdeciding in advance which employees or positions should form the â€Å"core† and which should be more fluid. At one large firm, about 10% of the workforce is contingent now. The com- Chapter 1 Changing Nature of Human Resource Management 7 pany sees using contingent employees as a way to stabilize the workforce. Instead of hiring regular workers when work piles up and then firing them when the work is finished, the company relies more on temporary workers and independent contractors. Productivity isRead MoreFundamentals of Hrm263904 Words   |  1056 PagesWORKPLACE ISSUES: A Special Case of a Career: Entrepreneurship 222 Enhancing Your Career Summary 224 Demonstrating Comprehension: Questions for Review 224 Key Terms 225 226 HRM Workshop 223 WORKPLACE ISSUES: Forced Rankings—Are They Working? 242 Using Achieved Outcomes to Evaluate Employees 243 Common Elements in MBO Programs 243 Does MBO Work? 243 Linking Concepts to Practice: Discussion Questions 226 Developing Diagnostic and Analytical Skills 226 Case Application 9-A: A Fudge Career 226 CaseRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 Pagesand Byron vs. Thomas 278 Observer’s Feedback Form 278 5 GAINING POWER AND INFLUENCE 279 280 SKILL ASSESSMENT 280 Diagnostic Surveys for Gaining Power and Influence Gaining Power and Influence 280 Using Influence Strategies 281 SKILL LEARNING 283 Building a Strong Power Base and Using Influence Wisely 283 A Balanced View of Power 283 Lack of Power 283 Abuse of Power 285 Strategies for Gaining Organizational Power 286 The Necessity of Power and Empowerment 286 Sources of Personal Power 288Read MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesCan Jobs Be Redesigned? 242 †¢ Alternative Work Arrangements 245 †¢ The Social and Physical Context of Work 249 Employee Involvement 250 Examples of Employee Involvement Programs 251 †¢ Linking Employee Involvement Programs and Motivation Theories 252 Using Rewards to Motivate Employees 252 What to Pay: Establishing a Pay Structure 252 †¢ How to Pay: Rewarding Individual Employees Through Variable-Pay Programs 253 †¢ Flexible xii CONTENTS Benefits: Developing a Benefits Package 257 †¢ IntrinsicRead MoreTop 1 Cause for Project Failure65023 Words   |  261 Pageshowever look further: why do we create a rocket? Because we want to go to the moon. If NASA would have only focussed on delivering rockets, they would never have reached the moon and probably had produced a great number of disasters while delivering or using those rockets. A Business Case focus, rather than only a delivery focus! (By the way off topic: this delivery approach for me also caused the current financial crisis. Only focussing on the deal, not on the long term effects.)

Facts on the Notre Dame Cathedral Free Essay Example, 1750 words

Generally, Notre de Paris consisted of the apse, choir, a nave bordered by square chapels and double aisles. The cathedral had its central spire added when restoration began in the early 19th century. The inner side of the cathedral measures 427 by 157 feet in plan, the roof measures 115 feet in height. The western facade is crowned by two enormous Gothic towers and is sub-divided into three floors. Its doors are garlanded with fine and unique Gothic carvings and transcended by Old Testament King Figures. Both towers have a height of 223 feet they were to be crowned with spires but they were never added. On the eastern end of the Cathedral, huge clerestory windows are fitted in the spires and are supported by arch flying buttresses made with an outstanding Rayonnant Gothic design. The Gothic design has an arresting look especially due to its grace and boldness. Most people are still marveled by the fact that three rose windows have still retained their glass up to now from the 13thc entury. During the 19th century the cathedral deteriorated and suffered a lot of damage fortunately, Napoleon rescued it from destruction after the end of the French revolution. We will write a custom essay sample on Facts on the Notre Dame Cathedral or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page In the 10th century, the building was already the cathedral of Paris. Unfortunately, in 1160 after it was declared the parish church for the Europe Kings an order to demolish it was implemented as it was presumed to be unworthy for the lofty role, the order was given by Bishop Maurice de Sully.

King Philip II Of Spain - 1631 Words

I believe that King Philip II of Spain was a great King and the idea of The Spanish Armada was a good idea that he had come up with. The Spanish Armada is about a boat that set sail in July 1588 by the Spanish, and it was ordered by the catholic King Philip II of Spain to invade England and take down the protestant Queen Elizabeth I. Queen Elizabeth I, was catholic but then became protestant. The Church did not like her decision and they wanted her to become catholic again, so the Pope encouraged King Philip II of Spain if he could try to make England catholic again. King Philip agreed to do what the Pope had asked of him. For years, Philip was in need of a Queen and since Elizabeth was not wed, he proposed to Elizabeth over and over again, but Elizabeth wanted to make all the decisions and Elizabeth did not nor did she ever get married, the main reason was because she did not want a man to tell her what to do, she did not want to marry someone who was in need of a Queen, but for som eone who truly loves her for her. â€Å"I do not want a husband who honours me as a queen, if he does not love me as a woman.† So she declined all of Philip’s marriage proposals. Philip’s task for the Spanish Armada was to overthrow protestant England lead by their protestant Queen, Elizabeth I. Philip’s plan for the Spanish Armada was to swing the fleet by the Netherlands, pick up his army there, and transport them across the English Channel for a ground invasion.Show MoreRelatedThe Pros And Cons Of King Philip II864 Words   |  4 PagesWas Philip II of Spain a successful absolute monarch during his rule? Many people believe he had what it took to be absolute monarch, but there were several constraints he faced as a ruler in Spain. Philip II was known for building one of the largest empires from creating effective domestic and foreign policies to gain leadership of his kingdom instead of the local authorities in charge, but he did face problems while r uling the kingdom. His addressed many of these policies, such as the policy againstRead MoreKing Louis Xiv : An Absolute Ruler1373 Words   |  6 PagesKing Louis XIV was born on September 5, 1638 in a place called Saint-Germaine-en-Laye, France (Louis XIV Biography). Louis XIV became King of France in 1643 and he began to reform France and make changes to France. Louis XIV ideology was the ideology of an absolute monarch. Louis XIV believed that all kings ruled by divine right. He believed that God gave him the authority to rule France. He believed he was the French state and that he should be in complete control. Cardinal Richelieu was a man whoRead MoreSpanish and French Monarchial Beliefs - the Escorial and Versailles1726 Words   |  7 PagesVersailles was built by Louis XIV of France (1643-1715), and the Escorial was built by Philip II of Spain (1556-1598). By examining the aerial and frontal facades of these two palaces, it may be seen that there were many similarities and differences between the two kings perception and practice of monarchy. Each king set his own goals for his life, and concluded as to how a monarch ought to behave. Both Louis XIV and Philip II had religious duties to pay attention to, organized the distribution of powerRead MoreSimilarities And Differences Of Philip II And King Philip I And Japan974 Words   |  4 Pagesthroughout time, such as Peter, Charles II, and the most famous, Louis XIV. Another example of an absolute ruler was Philip II who ruled Spain from 1527 to 1598. His religion was Roman Catholicism who felt it was his duty to defend Catholicism. 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Statistics Course Notes Free Essays

string(66) " 3 Fields of Statistics There are two major fields in Statistics\." †¢ Defining What Statistics Really Is 1. 1 Nature of Statistics The term â€Å"Statistics† came from the Latin word ‘status’ which could be translated as ‘state’. The usage of this term only became popular during the 18 th century where they defined Statistics as â€Å"the science of dealing with data about the condition of a state or community†. We will write a custom essay sample on Statistics Course Notes or any similar topic only for you Order Now The practice of statistics could be traced back even from the early biblical times where they gather figures related to governance of the state for they realized the importance of these figures in governing the people. Even until today, worldwide, governments have intensified their data gathering and even widen the scope of their numerical figures due to the rise of more cost-efficient methods for collecting data. Some of the most popular figures that are being released by almost all countries are Gross National Product (GNP), Birth rates, Mortality Rates, Unemployment Rate, Literacy Rates and Foreign Currency Exchange Rates. Also, the use of Statistics is not limited to government use only. Right now, almost all business sectors and fields of study use statistics. Statistics serves as the guiding principle in their decision making and helps them come up with sound actions as supported by the analysis done in their available information. Indicated below are some of the uses of Statistics in various fields: Medicine: Medical Researchers use statistics in testing the feasibility or even the efficacy of newly developed drugs. Statistics is also used to understand the spread of the disease and study their prevention, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment (Epidemiology). JDEUSTAQUIO 1 Economics: Statistics aids Economists analyze international and local markets by estimating some Key Performance Indicators (KPI) such as unemployment rate, GNP/GDP, amount of exports and imports. It is also used to forecast economic fluctuations and trends. Market Research: derives statistics by conducting surveys and coming up decisions from these statistics through feasibility studies or for testing the marketability of a new product. Manufacturing: use statistics to assure the quality of their products through the use of sampling and testing some of their outputs Accounting/Auditing: uses sampling techniques in statistics to examine and check their financial books. Education: Educators use statistical methods to determine the validity and reliability of their testing procedures and evaluating the performance of teachers and students. 1. 2 Basic Concepts We normally hear the word â€Å"statistics† when people are talking about basketball or the vital statistics of beauty contestants. In this context the word â€Å"statistics† is used in the plural form which simply means a numerical figure. But the field of Statistics is not only limited to these simple figures and archiving them. In the context of this course, the definition of â€Å"Statistics† is mainly about the study of the theory and applications of the scientific methods dealing all about the data and making sound decisions on this. Statistics is the branch of science that deals with the collection, presentation, organization, analysis and interpretation of data. Sometimes, gathering the entire collection of elements is very tedious, expensive or even timeconsuming. Because of this data gatherers sometimes resort to collecting just a portion of the entire collection of elements. The term coined for the entire collection of elements is called Population while the subset of the population is referred as the Sample. JDEUSTAQUIO 2 Population is the collection of all elements under consideration in a statistical inquiry while the sample is a subset of a population. THINK: Could you say that the entire population is also a sample? The specification of the population of interest depends upon the scope of the study. Let’s say that if we wish to know the average expenditure of all households in Metro Manila, then the population of interest is the collection of all households in Metro Manila. If there is a need to delimit the scope of the study due to some constraints, we could redefine the population of interest. We could delimit the scope of the study to only specific city in Metro Manila. With this the study would only include the collection of all households in ________ City. The elements of the population is not only limited to individuals, it can be objects, animals, geographical areas, in other words, almost anything. Some examples of possible populations are: the set of laborers in a certain manufacturing plant, the set of foreigners residing on Boracay for a certain day, set of Ford Fiesta produced in the entire Philippines on a month. In any studies involving the use of Statistics, there would be at least one attribute of the element in the population which we would be studying. This attribute or characteristic is what we call variable. Just like in the field of Mathematics, we normally denote a variable with a single capital letter i. e. A, X, Z. The variable is a characteristic or attribute of the elements in a collection that can assume different values for the different elements. While an observation is a realized value of the variable, and the collection of these observations is called the data. Example: The Department of Health is interested in determining the percentage of children below 12 years old infected by the Hepatitis B virus in Metro Manila in 2006. Population: Set of all children below 12 years old in Metro Manila in 2006 Variable of Interest: whether or not the child has ever been infected by the Hepatitis B virus. Possible Observations: Infected, Never Infected Regardless of whether every element of the data on the population or sample is used, it is often still difficult to convey meaning to these observations is not summarized. This is the JDEUSTAQUIO 3 reason why it is important to condense these observations to a single figure to completely describe the entire data. This condensed value is what we call summary measure. The parameter is a summary measure describing a specific characteristic of a population while a statistic is a summary measure describing a specific characteristic of the sample. . 3 Fields of Statistics There are two major fields in Statistics. You read "Statistics Course Notes" in category "Papers" The first one is (i) Applied Statistics, this deals mainly with the procedures and techniques used in the collection, presentation, organization, analysis and interpretation of data. On the other hand, the second one is (ii) Mathematical Statistics, which is concerned with the d evelopment of the mathematical foundations of the methods used in Applied Statistics. In this course, we would mostly deal with the basics of Applied Statistics. This field could also by sub-divided into two areas of interest. These two are Descriptive and Inferential Statistics. Both are definitive of their names. Descriptive Statistics includes all the techniques used in organizing, summarizing, and presenting the data on hand, while Inferential Statistics includes all the techniques used in analyzing the sample data that will lead to generalizations about a population from which the sample came from. To clarify, we may use descriptive statistics for population data or sample data. If we are dealing with population data, then the results of the study are applicable only to the defined population. In the same manner, if we use descriptive statistics to sample data, then the conclusions are applicable only to the selected sample. JDEUSTAQUIO 4 1. 4 Statistical Inquiry Statistical Inquiry is a designed research that provides information needed to solve a research problem. Oftentimes, researchers can now find an appropriate statistical technique that will help them answer their research problems. This is because o the wide array of applications of the various statistical techniques used in a statistical inquiry. Below is the diagram depicting the entire process of statistical inquiry. Step 1: †¢ Identify the Problem †¢ Plan the Study †¢ Collect the Data †¢ Explore the Data †¢ Analyze Data and Interpret the Results †¢ Present the Results Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 JDEUSTAQUIO 5 †¢ Theory without data is just an Opinion 2. 1 Measurement The data used for statistical analysis should always be accurate, complete, and up-todate because the information that we would get is only as good as the data that we have. Good quality data comes at a cost but if we have the assurance of obtaining essential information that answers our research problem then it is all worth it. Measurement is the process of determining the value or label of the variable based on what has been observed. Naturally, our interpretation of the values in our data will depend on the measurement system or the rule that we used to assign the values to the different categories of the variable. In particular, it will depend on the relationship among the values used in the system. The general classification used to describe the types of relationship among these values or categories is what is known as â€Å"levels of measurement†. The four levels of measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio level. It is necessary to know the level of measurement used to measure a variable because this will help in the interpretation of the values of the variables and choosing the suitable statistical technique to use in the analysis. Ratio level of measurement has all of the following properties : a) the numbers in the system are used to classify a person/object into distinct, nonoverlapping, and exhaustive categories; b) the system arranges the categories according to magnitude; c) the system has a fixed unit of measurement representing a standard size throughout the scale; and d) the system has an absolute zero. JDEUSTAQUIO 6 Some examples of variables with ratio level of measurement are: 1. Distance traveled by a car (in km) 2. Height of a flag pole (in metres) 3. Weight of a whole dressed chicken (in kilograms) Now we will discuss each of the properties that is required for a measuring scale to have in order for it to be considered as having a ratio level of measurement: a) The numbers in the system are used to classify a person/object into distinct nonoverlapping, and exhaustive categories. This first condition requires that we use categories that would place the observations logically into one and only one category. This means that two objects assigned the same value must belong in the same category and be placed in a different category if the characteristics of interest is really different. b) The system arranges the categories according to magnitude. This second property requires that the measurement system must arrange the categories according to either ascending or descending order. c) The system has a fixed unit of measurement representing a standard size throughout the scale. The third property requires the scale to use a unit of measure that depicts a fixed and determinate quantity. This means that a one-unit difference must have the same interpretation wherever it appears in the scale. d) The system has an absolute zero. The fourth property requires the measurement system to have an absolute zero or the true zero point. This means that the scale considers the value, â€Å"0† (zero) as the complete absence of the characteristic itself. One example of this is any monetary measurement where zero means that there is absolutely no money. Interval Level of Measurement satisfies only the first three conditons of the ratio level of measurement. The only difference of the interval level of measurement to the ratio level of measurement is the absence of the absolute zero value. This means that the interval level of measurement considers â€Å"0† (zero) as a value like any other numbers and not as the absence of JDEUSTAQUIO 7 the characteristic of interest. The most common example of this is measuring temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit where the value â€Å"zero† does not mean that there is no temperature. Ordinal Level of Measurement satisfies only the first two conditons of the ratio level of measurement. The ordinal level of measurement only uses a scale that ranks or orders the observed values in either ascending or descending order. The interval or simply the difference of the scale from one point to another does not need to be equal all throughout the scale. For example the ranking of the student in class according to their grades could be tagged as 1 st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and so on. The difference of the grade between the 1st student and the 2nd placed student does not need to be of the same gap between the 4 th placer and the 5th placer. Nominal Level of Measurement satisfies only the first property of the ratio level of measurement. The nominal level of measurement is the weakest level of measurement among the four. This is because its only aim is to classify the values into separate categories without regards to the ordering of these categories in ascending or descending manner. Most often, this level of measurement uses non-quantifiable categories like the different religions, zip code or the student number. 2. 2 Collecting Data 2. 2 . 1 Data Collection Methods The most commonly used methods for collecting data are: i. Use of Documented Data, ii. ) Surveys, iii. ) Experiments, and iv. ) Observation. Use of Documented Data It is not necessary to use original data in conducting studies; sometimes it would make things easier if the researcher uses the data that is already available if there is such one suitable for the study. The only dilemma with using documented data is its reliability and veracity. Therefore, the researcher must look closely on the source of this data to have a measure on the reliability JDEUSTAQUIO 8 of the data that would be used. Also, these documented data can be categorized in to two, the primary data and the secondary data. Primary Data are data documented by the primary source, meaning, the data collectors themselves documented the data. Secondary Data are data documented by a secondary source, meaning, an individual/agency, other than the data collectors, documented the data. Surveys Another common method of collecting data is the survey. The people who answer the questions in a survey are called the respondents. This method is much more expensive than collecting data using documented stuff. Another problem of using surveys is that reliability of the data depends mainly on the survey process itself, either from the respondent, the survey design, questionnaire or if it is a personal interview there might be a problem with the interviewer if he/she lacks training. The Survey is a method of collecting data on the variable/s of interest by asking people questions. When data came from asking all the people in the population, then it is called census. On the other hand, when the data came from asking a sample of people selected from a well-defined population, the it is called a sample survey. Experiments If the researcher is interested in something that involves cause-and-effect relationship, conducting the experiment is most likely the suitable way of collecting data. The most common experiment that is normally conducted during the primary level is the mongo seed experiment. The aim of this experiment is to see the relationship of the growth of the mongo in relation with sunlight exposure, amount of water and the type of soil. The Experiment is a method of collecting data where there is direct human intervention on the conditions that may affect the values of the variable of interest. Observation Method The Observation Method is a method of collecting data on the phenomenon of interest by recording the observations made about the phenomenon as it actually happens. JDEUSTAQUIO 9 The observation method is useful in studying the reactions and behavior of individuals or groups of persons/objects in a given situation or environment as it happens, For example, a researcher may use the observation method to study the behavior patterns of an indigenous tribe which is difficult to be gathered using the other methods. 2. 2. 2 The Questionnaire The questionnaire is an instrument for measuring which is used in various data collection methods (commonly used in surveys). The questionnaire may either be selfadministered or interview-based which are both explanatory of their names. 2. 2. 2. 1 Type of Questions ? A Closed-ended question is a type of question that includes a list of response categories from which the respondent will select his/her answer. ? An Open-ended question is a type of question that does not include response categories. Comparison of Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions Open-Ended ? Respondent can freely answer ? Can Elicit feeling and emotions of the respondent ? Can reveal new ideas and views that the researcher might not have considered ? Good for complex issues ? Good for questions whose possible responses are unknown ? Allow respondents to clarify answers ? Get detailed answers ? Shows how respondent think ? ? ? ? Closed-Ended Facilitates tabulation of responses Easy to code and analyze Saves time and money High response rate since it is simple and quick to answer ? Response categories make questions easy to understand ? Can repeat the study and easily make comparisons JDEUSTAQUIO Advantages 10 Disadvantages ? Difficult to tabulate and code ? High refusal late because it requires more ? ? ? ? ? Increases respondent to burden when time and effort on the respondent Respondents need to be articulate Responses can be inappropriate or vague May threaten respondent Responses have different levels of detail there are too many or too limited response categories ? Bias responses against categories excluded in the choices ? Difficult to detect if the respondent misinterpreted the question 2. 2. . 2 Response Categories for Close-ended Questions 1. Two-way Question – provides only two alternative answers from which the respondent can chose Example: Have you ever traveled outside the country by any means of transportation? Yes No 2. Multiple-choice Question – provides more than two alternatives from which the respondent can only choose one. Example: What is your marital status? Never Married Divorce d/Separated Married Widowed 3. Checklist Question – provides more than two alternatives from which the respondent can choose as many responses that apply to him/her. Example: What kind/s of novel do you like to read? Comedy Romance Fantasy Sci-Fi Horror Non-fiction Mystery Others, please specify ____________ JDEUSTAQUIO 11 4. Ranking Question – provides categories that respondents have to either arrange from highest to lowest or vice versa depending upon a particular criterion. Example: Below is a list of considerations in choosing and buying a new laptop. Put number (1) beside the quality that you prioritize the most, (2) for the second priority and so on. Prize Brand Quality Durability Style Novelty Warranty [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] . Rating Scale Question – provides a graded scale showing all possible directions and intensity of attitude of a respondent on a particular question or statement. Example: How satisfied are you on the teaching method of your instructor in this course? 1 Very Dissatisfied 2 Dissatisfied 3 Neutral 4 Satisfied 5 Very Satisfied 6. Matrix Question – a type of question which places various question s together to save space in the questionnaire. It is like having any of the five earlier types of questions and squeezing more than one question in a form of a table. Example: For each statement, please indicate with a checkmark whether you agree or disagree with it Statements Statistics is a very difficult subject Only few people could understand Statistics I would rather sleep than study Statistics at home Agree Disagree JDEUSTAQUIO 12 2. 2. 2. 3 Pitfalls to Avoid in Wording Questions 1. Avoid Vague Questions – State all question clearly. All respondents must have the same interpretation to a question. If not, their answers will not be comparable, making it difficult to analyze their responses. Example: How often do you watch a movie in a movie theatre? Very Often Often Not too often Never Problem: The word â€Å"often† is vague. Instead, you may ask how many times did he/she watched a movie last month. 2. Avoid Biased Question – A biased question influences the respondents to choose a particular response over the other possible responses. Whether the bias is caused accidentally or intentionally, the data would become useless because it still failed to reveal the truth. Example: There are many different types of sport like badminton, basketball, billiards, bowling and tennis. Which type of sport d you enjoy watching? Problem: The sports mentioned in the first sentence will be in the top of the minds of the respondents. It is likely for the respondents to choose from among these sports. This will result in a bias against the sports not mentioned in the list. 3. Avoid Confidential and Sensitive Questions – These questions usually offend the pride or jeopardize the prestige of the respondent. Example: Do you bring home office supplies? If yes, how often do you bring home office supplies? Problem: The question may sound offensive to the pride of the respondent. 4. Avoid Questions that are difficult to answer – Do not ask questions that are too difficult for the respondent to answer truthfully. Such questions would only encourage respondents to guess their answers, if not totally refuse to answer the question. Example: If you are the president of the nation, what are you going to do to attain economic recovery? JDEUSTAQUIO 13 5. Avoid Questions that are confusing or perplexing to answer – Sometimes a poorly written question can confuse the respondent on how to answer the question Example: Did you eat out and watch a movie last weekend? Problem: This is a double-barreled question, where you combine two or more question in to a single question. You should opt to separate this question into two to avoid confusion. 6. Keep the Questions short and simple – Long and complicated question can be difficult to understand. The respondent may lose interest in the question because of its length or might have problem comprehending very long statement needed to understand the question. 2. 3 Sampling and Sampling Techniques 2. 3. 1 Basic Concepts As we have discussed on the previous Chapter 1, sample is the subset of a population. Some people think that if we are basing our analysis on samples, why don’t we just guess our analysis entirely without any data? This question could be partially answered by a quote from Sir Charles Babbage, the Father of the Computer who said that, â€Å"Errors using inadequate data are much less than those using no data at all†. So now, before we can talk about the different sampling selection procedures, we need to familiarize ourselves first with some terms. The target population is the population we want to study The sampled population is the population from where we actually select the sample It is good if the target and the sampled population have the same collection of elements. The problem is that often times in life, expectations do not jive well with reality. One example where the target and the sampled population would be different from each other is the case where the target population is the collection of all the residents of Metro Manila. If we would be using a telephone directory to select our sample, this collection would be very different from the target population since this would exclude all the residents that have no landline. JDEUSTAQUIO 14 The sampling frame or frame is a list or map showing all the sampling units in the population. In any statistical inquiry, whether the data will come from a census or from a sample, it is important that we are conscious of all the possible errors that we introduce (hopefully not intentionally) in the results of the study. In order for us to do this and reduce these errors, we need to understand the possible sources of errors, namely, the sampling errors and the nonsampling errors. Sampling error is the error attributed to the variation present among the computed values of the statistic from the different possible samples consisting of n elements. Nonsampling errors is the error from other sources apart from sampling fluctuations Note that the ONLY TIME that the sampling error would not be present is if we have conducted a census. However, census results are NOT ERROR-FREE. Census and samples can both have nonsampling errors (simply the errors not brought solely by sampling). Total Error Nonsampling Error Error in the implementation of the sampling design Measurement Error Sampling Error Selection Error Instrument Error Frame Error Population Specification Error Response Error Processing Error Interviewer Bias Surrogate Information Error Diagram of the Various Sources of Error JDEUSTAQUIO 15 2. 3. 2 Methods of Probability Sampling Probability Sampling is a method of selecting a sample wherein each element in the population has a known, nonzero chance of being included in the sample; otherwise, it is a nonprobability sampling method. ? A nonzero chance of inclusion means that the sampling procedure must give all the elements of the sample population an opportunity of being a part of the sample. All of the elements that belong in the sampled population must be included in the selection process. ? Another requirement of probability sampling is that we should be able to determine the chance that an element will be included in the selected sample. Take note that the probability of each element in the sampled population need not be equal to each other. 2. 3. 2. 1 Simple Random Sampling Simple Random Sampling (SRS) is a probability sampling method wherein all possible subsets consisting of n elements selected from the N elements of the population have the same chances of selection. In simple random sampling without replacement (SRSWOR), all the n elements in the sample must be distinct from each other. In simple random sampling with replacement (SRSWR), the n elements in the sample need not be distinct, that is, an element can be seleceted more than once as a part of the sample. The most apparent example of SRSWOR that we could see every day on mass media is the National lottery where the numbers that would be drawn must be distinct and every number should have an equal chance of being selected in the draw. JDEUSTAQUIO 16 Visual representation of Simple Random Sampling without Replacement. 2. 3. 2. 2 Stratified Sampling Stratified sampling is a probability sampling method where we divide the population into nonoverlapping subpopulations or strata, and then select one sample from each stratum. The sample consists of all the samples in the different strata. Stratified sampling, in general, simply requires the division of the population into nonoverlapping strata, wherein each element of the population needs to belong to exactly one stratum. Then each sample would be selected form the strata using any probability sampling method. If simple random sampling used for each sample in the strata then this sampling is called stratified random sampling. JDEUSTAQUIO 17 Visually, it might look something like the image below. With our population, we can easily separate the individuals by color. Once we have the strata determined, we need to decide how many individuals to select from each stratum. The most common practice is that the number selected should be proportional. In our case, 1/4 of the individuals in the population are blue, so 1/4 of the sample should be blue as well. Working things out, we can see that a stratified (by color) random sample of 4 should have 1 blue, 1 green and 2 red. JDEUSTAQUIO 18 2. 3. 2. 3 Systematic Sampling Systematic sampling is a probability sampling method wherein the selection of the first element is at random and the selection of the other elements in the sample is systematic by taking every kth element from the random start, where k is the sampling interval To select a sample using systematic sampling, we need to perform the following steps: 1. Decide on a method of assigning a unique serial number, from 1 to N, to each one of the elements in the population. 2. Choose n = sample size so that it is a divisor of N = population size. Compute for the sampling interval k = N/n. 3. Select a number from 1 to k, using a randomization mechanism. Denote the selected number by r. The element in the population assigned to this number is the first element of the sample. 4. The other elements of the sample are those assigned to the numbers r + k, r + 2k, r +3 k, and so on, until you get a sample size of n. 5. In case that k = N/n is not a whole number; the first element would still be r but would be a randomly chosen number from 1 to N instead k as used on the previous step. By visual explanation, so to use systematic sampling, we need to first order our individuals, then select every kth. In our example, we want to use 3 for k? Can you see why? Think what would happen if we used 2 or 4. JDEUSTAQUIO 19 For our starting point, we pick a random number between 1 and k. For our visual, let’s suppose that we pick 2. The individuals sampled would then be 2, 5, 8, and 11. 2. 3. 2. 4 Cluster Sampling Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method wherein we divide the population into nonoverlapping groups or clusters consisting of one or more elements, and then select a sample of clusters. The sample will consist of all the elements in the selected clusters. To select a sample using cluster sampling, we need to perform the following steps: 1. Divide the population into nonoverlapping clusters. 2. Number the clusters in the population from 1 to N. 3. Select n distinct numbers from 1 to N using a randomization mechanism. The selected clusters are the clusters associated with the selected numbers 4. The sample will consist of all the elements in the selected clusters. Cluster sampling is often confused with stratified sampling, because they both involve â€Å"groups†. In reality, they’re very different. In stratified sampling, we split the population up into groups (strata) based on some characteristic. In essence, we use cluster sampling when our population is already broken up into groups (clusters), and each cluster represents the population. That way, we just select a certain number of clusters. JDEUSTAQUIO 20 With our visual, let’s suppose the 12 individuals are paired up just as they were sitting in the original population. Since we want a random sample of size four, we just select two of the clusters. We would number the clusters 1-6 and use technology to randomly select two random numbers. It might look something like this: JDEUSTAQUIO 21 2. 3. 2. 5 Multistage Sampling Multistage sampling is a probability sampling method where there is a hierarchical configuration of sampling units and we select a sample of these units in stages. Unlike all the other previously presented sample selection procedures where the process of sampling takes place in a single phase, we accomplish the selection of the elements in the sample under multistage sampling after several stages of sampling. We first partition the population into non-overlapping primary stage units (PSUs) and select a sample of PSUs. We then subdivide the selected PSUs into non-overlapping second-stage units (SSUs) and select a sample of SSUs. We continue the process until we identify the elements in the sample at the last stage of sampling. For example, consider a light-bulb example using two-stage sampling procedure. Let’s suppose that the bulbs come off the assembly line in boxes that each contains 20 packages of four bulbs each. One strategy would be to do the sample in two stages: Stage 1: A quality control engineer removes every 200th box coming off the line. (The plant produces 5,000 boxes daily. (This is systematic sampling. ) Stage 2: From each box, the engineer then samples three packages to inspect. (This is an example of cluster sampling. 2. 3. 3 Methods of Nonprobability Sampling All sampling methods that do not satisfy the requirements of probability sampling are considered as nonprobability sampling selection procedures. These methods do not make use of randomization mechanism in identifying the sampling units included in the sample. It allows the researcher to choose the units in the sample subjectiv ely. And since the sample selection is subjective, there is really no way to assess the reliability of the results without so much assumptions (remember assumptions are very prone to mistakes). JDEUSTAQUIO 22 Despite this drawback of nonprobability sampling, these methods are still more commonly used since it is less costly and easier to administer. Here are some of the most basic nonprobability sampling selection procedures: 2. 3. 3. 1 Haphazard or Convenience Sampling In haphazard or convenience sampling, the sample consists of elements that are most accessible or easier to contact. This usually includes friends, acquaintances, volunteers, and subject who are available and willing to participate at the time of the study. The most common example that we could see on the television is the text polls about a certain issue. This type of sampling the opinion of the people doesn’t involve randomization mechanism in the selection of the units in the sample. This is sometimes referred to as the nonprobability counterpart of simple random sampling. 2. 3. 3. 2 Judgement or Purposive Sampling The elements are carefully selected to provide a â€Å"representative† sample. Studies have demonstrated that selection bias can arise even with expert choice but nevertheless the method may be appropriate for very small samples when the expert has a good deal of information about the population-elements. The two common features of the method are: a. sampling units often consist of relatively large groups; and, b. ) sampling units are chosen so that they will provide accurate estimates for important control variables for which results are known for the whole population and its hoped that it will give â€Å"good† estimates for other variables that are highly correlated with the control variables. This sampling method may be considered as the nonprobability counterpart of Cluster sampling. 2. 3. 3. 3 Quota Sampling This is considered as the nonprobability counterpart of stratified sampling. In this method, interviewers are assigned quotas of respondents of different types to interview. The quotas are sometimes chosen to be in proportion to the estimated population figures for various types, often based on past census data. The researcher also chooses the groups or strata in the study but the selection of the sampling units within the stratum does not make use of a probability sampling method. JDEUSTAQUIO 23 2. 4 Presentation of Data After data collection, we organize and analyze the data, and then we present the results of our analysis in some form that will allow us to reveal and highlight the important information that we were able to extract. Unless we do this, we will only get lost in huge mound of numbers and labels that we have collected. Our grade school teachers already taught us this various kinds of presenting the data so why do we need to study this again? We may be familiar with the line chart and the bar chart but we need to learn or review the basic principles of constructing a good table and a good graph. With good data presentation, we can discover, and even explore possible relationships. Poor data presentation will only mislead, deceive, and misinform. It is therefore essential that we remember to put a more conscious effort to use these different methods of presentation properly in order to maximize data description and analysis. 2. 4. 1 Textual Presentation Textual Presentation of data incorporates important figures in a paragraph of text. In textual presentation, it aims to direct the readers’ attention to some data that need particular emphasis as well as to some important comparisons and to supplement with a narrative account from a table or a chart. It could also show the summary measures like minimum, maximum, totals and percentages. We do not need to put all figures in a textual presentation; we just have to select the most important ones that we want to focus on. Example: The Philippine Stock Exchange composite index lost 7. 19 points to 2,099. 12 after trading between 2,095. 30 and 2,108. 47. Volume was 1. 29 billion shares worth 903. 15 million pesos (16. 7milliondollars). The broader all share index gained 5. 21 points to 1,221. 34. (From: Free mandated March 17, 2005) When the data become voluminous, the textual presentation is strongly not advised because the presentation becomes almost incomprehensible. JDEUSTAQUIO 24 2. 4. 2 Tabular Presentation Tabular Presentation of data arranges figures in a systematic manner in rows and columns. Tabular presentation is the most common method of data presentation. It can be used for various purposes such as description, comparison, and even showing relationships between two or more variables of interest. We will discuss three types of presenting in tabular form, namely; Leader Work, Text Tabulation and Formal Statistical table which is categorized according to their format and layout. Leader Work Leader work has the simplest layout among the three types of tables. It contains no table title or column headings and has no table borders. This table needs an introductory or descriptive statement so that the reader can understand the given figures. The Population in the Philippines for the Census Years 1975 to 2000 is as follows a 1975 1980 1990 1995 2000 a b 42,070,660 48,098,460 60,703,206b 68,616,536b 76,498,735 National Statistics Office The 1990 and 1995 figures include the household population, homeless population, and Filipinos in Philippines embassies and mission abroad. In addition, the census comprise institutional population found living quarters such as penal institutions, orphanages, hospitals, military camps, etc. As you can see, the above table would not be clear without the introductory statement. Likewise, both have no table numbers that we can use to refer to these figures. Thus, we use the leader work when there are only one or two columns of figures that we can incorporate as part of the textual presentation for a more organized presentation. Text Tabu lat io n The format of text tabulation is a little bit more complex than leader work. It already has column headings and table borders so that it is easier to understand than leader work. However it still does not have table title and table number. Thus, it also requires an introductory statement so that the readers can comprehend the given figures. Similar to leader work, we can place additional explanatory statement in the footnote. JDEUSTAQUIO 25 The Population in the Philippines for the Census Years 1975 to 2000 is as follow a Year 1975 1980 1990 1995 2000 a b No. of Filipinos (in thousands) 42,070. 66 48,098. 46 60,703. 21b 68,616. 54b 76,498. 4 National Statistics Office The 1990 and 1995 figures include the household population, homeless population, and Filipinos in Philippines embassies and mission abroad. In addition, the census comprise institutional population found living quarters such as penal institutions, orphanages, hospitals, military camps, etc. Form al Statistical Table The formal statistical table is the most complete type of table since it has all the different and essential parts of a table like table number, table title, head note, box head, stub head, column headings, and so on. It could be a stand-alone table since it does not need any accompanying texts and it could be easily understood on its own. Heading consists of the table number, title and head note. It is located on top of the table of figures. i. Table number is the number that identifies the position of the table in a sequence. ii. Table title states in telegraphic form of the subject, data classification, and place and period covered by the figures in the table. iii. Head note appears below the title but above the top cross rule of the table and provides additional information about the table. Box head consists of spanner heads and columns heads. i. Spanner head is a caption or label describing two or more column heads. ii. Column head is a label that describes the figures in a column. iii. Panel is a set of column heads under the same spanner head. Stub consists of row captions, center head, and stub head. It is located at the left side of the table. i. Row caption is a label that describes the figures in a row. ii. Center head is a label describing a set of row captions. iii. Stub head is a caption or label that describes all of the center heads and row captions. It is located on the first row. iv. Block is a set of row captions under the same center head. JDEUSTAQUIO 26 Table number Stub head Title Head note Table 10. 9 Employed Persons by Major Industry Group January 2008 – October 2010 (in thousands) Panel Heading Spanner head Column head Industry Group Oct Total Agriculture Center head Agriculture, Hunting and Forestry Fishing 36,488 12,265 10,769 1,496 5,375 197 3,058 163 1,957 18,550 2010 Jul Apr 36,237 12,244 10,760 1,484 5,409 194 3,003 141 2,071 18,585 35,413 11,512 10,073 1,439 5,487 212 3,063 137 2,075 18,414 Jan 6,001 11,806 10,351 1,455 5,322 193 3,009 157 1,963 18,872 Oct 35,478 12,072 10,563 1,509 5,154 169 2,937 160 1,888 18,250 2009 Jul Apr 35,508 11,940 10,476 1,464 5,273 177 2,947 145 2,004 18,294 34,997 12,313 10,841 1,472 5,088 166 2,841 130 1,951 17,595 Jan 34,262 11,846 10,446 1,400 4,856 152 2,849 134 1,721 17,560 Oct 34,533 12,320 10,860 1,460 5,078 176 2,897 123 1,882 17,135 2008 Jul Apr 34,593 12,103 10,695 1 ,408 5,130 154 2,960 146 1,870 17,360 33,535 11,904 10,450 1,454 5,000 151 2,883 123 1,843 16,630 Jan 33,693 11,792 10,409 1,383 4,981 152 2,963 126 1,740 16,919 Industry Mining nd Quarrying Manufacturing Electricity, Gas and Water Construction Services Wholesale Retail Trade, Repair of Motor Vehicles, Motorcycles Personal Household Goods Hotels and Restaurants Transport, Storage and Communication Financial Intermediation Real Estate, Renting and Business Activities Public Administration Defense, Compulsory Social Security Education Health and Social Work Other Community, Social Personal Service Activities Private Households with Employed Persons Extra-Territorial Organizations Bodies 7,158 7,030 6,885 7,064 6,901 ,725 6,681 6,635 6,528 6,599 6,322 6,333 1,119 2,711 412 1,239 1,037 2,704 420 1,166 991 2,741 383 1,061 1,104 2,735 384 1,119 1,012 2,735 375 1,100 1,064 2,694 376 1,090 976 2,628 389 1,023 988 2,660 337 1,044 941 2,587 373 985 984 2,525 369 969 924 2,575 366 953 964 2,674 364 904 BLOCK 1,771 1,165 465 855 1,954 1 1,835 1,238 457 866 1,831 1 1,959 1,156 447 984 1,804 3 1,823 1,146 432 949 2,114 2 1,771 1,168 412 868 1,908 0 1 ,772 1,157 428 876 2,110 2 1,794 1,068 408 907 1,718 3 1,659 1,157 435 857 1,785 3 1,690 1,096 406 796 1,733 * 1,741 1,076 386 847 1,863 1 ,661 1,028 384 843 1,572 2 1,612 1,083 390 846 1,747 2 Notes: 1. Data were taken from the results of the quarterly rounds of the Labor Force Survey (LFS) using past week as reference peri od. 2. Details may not add up to totals due to rounding. 3. The definition of unemployment was revised starting the April 2005 round of the LFS. As such, LFPRs, employment rates and unemployment rates are not comparable with those of previous survey rounds. Also starting with January 2007, estimates were based on 2000 Census-based projections. 4. Data are as of January 2012. / – preliminary source note Source: National Statistics Office (NSO). footnote JDEUSTAQUIO 27 2. 4. 3 Graphical Presentation Tabular Presentation of data portrays numerical figures or relationships among variables in pictorial form. The graph or statistical chart is a very powerful to ol in presenting data. It is an important medium of communication because we can create a pictorial representation of the numerical figures found in tables without showing too many figures. We construct graphs not only for presentation purposes but also as an initial step in analysis. The graph, as a tool for analysis, can exhibit possible associations among the variables and can facilitate the comparison of different groups. It can also reveal trends over time. The different types of statistical charts are line chart, vertical bar chart, horizontal bar chart, pictograph, pie chart, and statistical map. It is important to know when and how to use these different charts. The selection of the correct type of chart depends upon the specific objective, the characteristic of the users, the kind of data, and the type of device and aterial on hand. Line Chart The line chart is useful for presenting historical data. This chart is effective in showing the movement of a series over time. As shown in the figures below, the movement can be increasing, decreasing, stationary, or could be fluctuating. Title at Top Scale figures for y-axis 20 No. of Accidents involving Company B during their Years of Service No. of Accidents Scale label for y-axis 15 10 Grid lines 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Footnote Source Note Years of Service Scale label for x-axis Scale figures for x-axis JDEUSTAQUIO 28 NEVER use line charts/graphs that are too stretched either horizontally or vertically, for it may mislead the person looking at the graph and interpret it as something that it is not really representing. JDEUSTAQUIO 29 Types of Line Chart Simple Line Chart – This has only one curve and is appropriate for one series of time data. Multiple Line Chart – This type of line chart shows two or more curves. We use this if we wish to compare the trends in two or more data series. Although the use of Multiple Line Chart is now commonly used, it should be taken notice the number of series that you include in a graph, if there are a lot of series in a single chart, it might become too confusing to see. Number of Daily Responses (Example of Single Line Chart) JDEUSTAQUIO 30 Co lu m n Chart We use the column charts to compare amounts in a time series data. The emphasis in a column chart is on the differences in magnitude rather than the movement of a series. ? We can also use the column chart to graph the frequency distribution of a quantitative variable. We call this chart a frequency histogram. ? For time series data, we arrange the columns on the horizontal axis in chronological order, starting with the earliest date. Title at Top Grid lines Scale label for y-axis Scale figures for x-axis Scale figures for y-axis The proportions of the columns must be just right. Columns must not be too wide or too narrow. The space between the bars must also be just right. Usually, the space between bars is around one-fourth of the width of the column. It is also advisable to use scale figures that are multiples of 5. If the observed values are so small, we can use multiples of 1 or 2. JDEUSTAQUIO 31 Horizontal Bar Chart Its use is appropriate when we wish to show the distribution of categorical data. We use the horizontal bar chart so we can compare the magnitudes for the different categories of a qualitative variable. We place the categories of the qualitative variable on the yaxis. This will be more practical than placing the categories on the x-axis because there is more space for text labels on the y-axis. Just like the column charts, the bars should not be too wide, too narrow, too long and nor too short. Arranging the bars according to length usually facilitates comparisons. It may be decreasing or ascending order. ? If there are â€Å"Others† category, we always place this as the first or the last category. ? If the categorical variables have a natural ordering, such as a rating scale, then we should retain the order of the categories in the scale instead of arranging the bars accor ding to length. ? We should always choose appropriate colors or patterns for the bars. We should avoid selecting wavy and weird patterns since this will only produce an optical illusion. JDEUSTAQUIO 32 Pie Chart It is a circle divided into several sections. Each section indicates the proportion of each component or category. This is useful for data sorted in to categories for a specific period. The purpose is to show the component parts with respect to the total in terms of the percentage distribution. The components of the pie chart should be arranged according to magnitude. If there’s an ‘Others’ category, we put it in the last section. We use different colors, shading, or patterns to distinguish one section of the pie to the other sections. We plot the biggest slice at 12 o’clock. If we want to emphasize a particular sector of the pie chart, we may explode that slice by detaching it from the rest of the sectors. The pie chart is applicable for qualitative rather than quantitative data. However, if the variable has too many categories (more than 6), we should use the horizontal bar chart rather than the pie chart. JDEUSTAQUIO 33 Pictograph o It is like a horizontal bar chart but instead of using bars, we use symbols or pictures to represent the magnitude. o The purpose of this chart is to get the attention of the reader. The pictograph provides an overall picture of the data without presenting the exact figures. o Usually, we can only show approximate figures in a pictograph since we have to round off figures to whole numbers. It still allows the comparison of different categories even if we just present only the approximate values. o The choice for the symbol or picture should be apt for the type of data. It shou ld be selfexplanatory, interesting, and simple. Statistical Maps ? ? ? ? ? This type of chart shows statistical data in geographical areas. This could also be called as crosshatched maps or shaded maps. Geographic areas may be barangays, cities, districts, provinces, and countries. The figures in the map can be ratios, rates, percentages, and indices. We do not use the absolute values and frequencies in statistical maps. JDEUSTAQUIO 34 Types of Statistical Maps ? Shaded Map – map that makes use of shading patterns. The shading pattern indicates the degree of magnitude. It usually runs gradually from dark to light (Darker shading of the map usually means larger magnitude). ? Dot map – chart that gives either the location or the number of establishments in a certain geographical area. The example below is a dot map of the number of people with Hispanic decent in the US. JDEUSTAQUIO 35 2. 5 Organization of Data The first step in data analysis is organizing the collected data. In its organized form, important features of the data become clear and apparent. The two common forms of organized data are the array and the frequency distribution 2. 5. 1 Raw Data and Array Raw Data are data in their original form. The actual data that we collect from surveys, observation, and experimentation are what we call raw data. Raw data have not yet been organized or processed in any manner. Example: Raw Data of the Final Grades of 100 Selected Students who took Stat 101 79 62 74 79 81 65 79 94 75 52 73 85 78 82 83 79 73 81 88 81 74 60 92 86 86 60 90 64 57 63 88 63 87 69 77 53 76 52 72 89 66 56 57 92 82 66 70 72 73 63 88 77 60 97 70 92 67 92 50 65 72 74 79 51 86 55 67 66 79 95 60 93 66 99 89 94 97 78 55 79 77 92 93 92 50 65 79 62 56 77 53 72 57 62 80 79 76 82 74 76 Array is an ordered arrangement of data according to magnitude. We also refer to the array as sorted data or ordered data Arranging the observations manually according to magnitude is very tedious especially if we are dealing with voluminous data. Thus, it is more convenient to use computer programs to sort the data. The array is not a summarized data set. It is simply an ordered set of observations. We consider both the raw data and array as ungrouped data. JDEUSTAQUIO 36 Example: Array of the Final Grades of 100 Selected Students who took Stat 101 50 50 51 52 52 53 53 55 55 56 56 57 57 57 60 60 60 60 62 62 62 63 63 63 64 65 65 65 66 66 66 66 67 67 69 70 70 72 72 72 72 73 73 73 74 74 74 74 75 76 76 76 77 77 77 77 78 78 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 80 81 81 81 82 82 82 83 85 86 86 86 87 88 88 88 89 89 90 92 92 92 92 92 92 93 93 94 94 95 97 97 99 2. 5. Frequency Distribution (FDT) The frequency distribution (FDT) is a way of summarizing data by showing the number of observations that belong in the different categories or classes. We also refer to this as grouped data. The frequency distribution is another way of organizing the data. It is a summarized form of the raw data or array wherein we do not see the actual observed values anymore. The two general forms of frequency distribution are single-value grouping and grouping by class intervals: 1. Single-value grouping – is a frequency distribution where the classes are the distinct values of the variable. This is applicable for data with only a few unique values. 2. Grouping by Class Intervals – is a frequency distribution where the classes are the intervals. Example: Suppose we have data on the number of children of 50 married women using any modern contraceptive method. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 JDEUSTAQUIO 37 Since there are only 6 unique values in the data set, then we use single-value grouping, Distribution of Married Women Using Any Modern Method of Contraceptive by Number of Children No. of Children 0 1 2 3 4 5 Number of Married Women 7 8 11 14 8 2 Concepts related to Frequency Distribution 1. Class Interval – is the range of values that belong in the class or category. 2. Class Frequency – is the number of observations that belong in a class interval. 3. Class Limits – are the end numbers used to define the class interval. The lower class limit (LCL) is the lower end number while the upper class limit (UCL) is the upper end number. 4. Open Class Interval – is a class interval with no lower class limit or no upper class limit. 5. Class Boundaries – are the true class limits. If the observations are rounded figures, then we identify the class boundaries based on the standard rules of rounding as follows: the lower class boundary (LCB) is halfway between the lower class limit of the class and the upper class limit of the preceding class while the upper class boundary (UCB) is halfway between the upper class limit of the class and the lower class limit of the next class. 6. Class size – is the size of the class interval. It is the difference between the upper class boundaries of the class and the preceding class; or the difference between the lower class boundaries of the next class and the class. . Class Mark – is the midpoint of a class interval. It is the average of the lower class limit and the upper class limit or the average of the lower class boundary and upper class boundary of a class interval. JDEUSTAQUIO 38 After learning the concepts that we need to construct a frequency distribution table, we can now list down the steps in constru cting a frequency distribution table. †¢ Determine the adequate number of classes denoted by K Step 1: †¢ We can use the Sturges’s rule to approximate the number of classes which is given by K = 1+ 3. 322(log n) Determine the range, R = highest observed value – smallest observed Step 2: value †¢ Compute for the pre-class size C’ = R/K Step 3: †¢ Determine the class size, C, by rounding-off C’ to a convenient Step 4: number †¢ Choose the lower class limit of the first class. Make sure that the smallest Step 5: observation will belong in the first class. †¢ List the class intervals. Determine the lower class limits of the suceeding classes y adding the class size to the lower class limit of the previous class. The last lass Step 6: should include the largest observation. Step 7: †¢ Tally all the observed values in each class interval Sum the frequency column and check against the total number of Step 8: observations After constructing the basic frequency distribution table, we could now add some other components to it that would help us in the analysis of the data. o o Relative Frequency – is the class frequency divided by the total number of observations Relative Frequency Distribution Percentage (RFP) – is relative frequency multiplied by 100. JDEUSTAQUIO 39 The relative frequency and RFP show the proportion and percentage of observations falling in each class. The RFP allows us to compare two or more data sets with different totals. The sum of the RFP column is one hundred percent (100%). Another component that could be added to the FDT is the cumulative frequency distribution which is comprised of two components. o o The less than cumulative frequency distribution (CFD) shows the number of observations with values higher than or equal to the lower class boundary. Example: Using the data of the Grades of 10o Students who took Stat 101, we would construct the frequency distribution table with the extra components; RF, RFP CFD. First, we will compute for K using the Sturges’ rule, K = 1 + (3. 322*log n) = 1 + (3. 322*log 100) = 1 + (3. 322 *2) = 7. 644 ? Secondly, we compute for the range, R R = max. value – min. value = 99 – 50 = 49 Third, compute for C’ and eventually C C’ = R / K = 49 / 8 = 6. 125 ? 7 Now we can create the FDT for the data set, Class Limits LCL 50 57 64 71 78 85 92 99 UCL 56 63 70 77 84 91 98 105 Class Boundaries LCB 49. 5 56. 5 63. 5 70. 5 77. 5 84. 5 91. 5 9 8. 5 UCB – 56. 5 – 63. 5 – 70. 5 – 77. 5 – 84. 5 – 91. 5 – 98. 5 – 105. 5 Frequency f 11 13 13 19 19 11 13 1 n=100 Class Mark x 53 60 67 74 81 88 95 102 RF f/n 0. 11 0. 13 0. 13 0. 19 0. 19 0. 11 0. 13 0. 01 RFP % 11 13 13 19 19 11 13 1 ; CFD 11 24 37 56 75 86 99 100 CFD ; CFD 100 89 76 63 44 25 14 1 JDEUSTAQUIO 40 Graphical Presentation of the Frequency Distribution We can effectively interpret the frequency distribution when displayed pictorially since more people understand and comprehend the data in graphic form. In this section we would discuss the various method of presenting the frequency distribution in graphical form. 1. Frequency Histogram The frequency histogram shows the overall picture of the distribution of the observed values in the dataset. It displays the class boundaries on the horizontal axis and the class frequencies on the vertical axis. The frequency histogram shows the shape of the distribution. The area under the frequency histogram corresponds to the total number of observations. The tallest vertical bar shows the frequency of the class interval with the largest class frequency. 2. Relative Frequency/ Relative Frequency Percentage Histogram The RF or RFP histogram displays the class boundaries on the horizontal axis and the relative frequencies or RFPs of the class intervals on the vertical axis. It represents the relative frequency of each class by a vertical bar whose height is equal to the relative frequency of the class. The shape of the relative frequency histogram and frequency histogram are the same. JDEUSTAQUIO 41 3. Frequency Polygon For the frequency polygon, plot the class frequencies at the midpoint of the classes and connect the plotted points by means of straight lines. Since it is a polygon we need to close the ends of the graph. To close the polygon, add an additional class mark on both ends of the graph wherein both ends have the frequency of 0. The advantage of the frequency polygon over the frequency histogram is that it allows the construction of two or more frequency distributions on the same plot area. This facilitates the comparison of the different frequency distributions. The frequency polygon also exhibits the shape of the data distribution. JDEUSTAQUIO 42 4. Ogives The ogive is the plot of the cumulative frequency distribution. This graphical representation is used when we need to determine the number of observations below or above a particular class boundary. The less than ogive is the plot of the less than cumulative frequencies against the upper class boundaries. On the other hand, the greater than ogive is the plot of the greater than cumulative frequencies against the lower class boundaries. Connect the successive points by straight lines. If we superimpose the less than and greater than ogives, the point of intersection gives us the value of the median. The median divides the ordered observations into two equal parts. JDEUSTAQUIO 43 †¢ Summary Measures Part 1 3. 1 Measures of Central Tendency The average is the popular term that is used to refer to a measure of central tendency. Most are already accustomed to thinking in terms of an average as a way of representing the collection of observations by a single value. For instance, we often use the average score to represent the scores in the exam of all students in a class. We can say that if the average score is high, then we conclude that the class performed well. The average could also be used to compare the performance of two groups based on the average of both groups and comparing which one has the higher average. The most common measure of central tendency is the arithmetic mean. The two other measures of central tendency that we will present in this section are the median and the mode. All of these measures aim to give information about the ‘center’ of the data or distribution. 3. 1 . 1 Summation Notation The summation notation provides a compact way of writing the formulas for some of the summary measures that would be discussed in this section. The capital Greek letter â€Å"sigma†,? is the mathematical symbol that represents the process of summation. The symbol, ? is equal to X1 + X2 + X3 + †¦ + Xn where Xi = value of the variable for the ith observation i = index of the summation (the letter below ? ). 1 = lower limit of the summation (the number below ? ). n = upper limit of the summation (the letter above ? ). We read ? as â€Å"summation of X sub i, where I is from 1 to n†. JDEUSTAQUIO 44 S How to cite Statistics Course Notes, Papers